Rāvaṇa is the name of the eighth Prativāsudeva according to both Śvetāmbara and Digambara sources. He is also known by the name Laṅkeśa or Daśamukha (‘ten-faced’). Jain legends describe nine such Prativāsudevas (anti-heroes) usually appearing as powerful but evil antagonists instigating Vāsudeva by subjugating large portions of Bharata-land. As such, they are closely related with the twin brothers known as the Vāsudevas (“violent heroes”) and the Baladevas (“gentle heroes”).
According to the Triṣaṣṭiśalākāpuruṣacarita 7.1, the mother of Rāvaṇa (or Daśamukha, Laṅkeśa) is named Ratnaśravas and his mother Kaikasī. Accordingly, “Ratnaśravas gave him the name Daśamukha because his face was united with the nine rubies”. Rāvaṇa has two elder brothers named Bhānukarṇa (or Kumbhakarṇa) and Bibhīṣaṇa, and a sister named Candraṇakhā (or Śūrpaṇakhā).
The Prativāsudevas (such as Rāvaṇa) fight against the twin-heroes with their cakra-weapon but at the final moment are killed by the Vāsudevas. Their stories are narrated in the Triṣaṣṭiśalākāpuruṣacarita (“the lives of the sixty-three illustrious persons”), a twelfth-century Śvetāmbara work by Hemacandra.
Rāvaṇa (also called Daśamukha) is a son of Rākṣasa Ratnaśravas (son of Sumālin) and Vidyādharī Kaikasī (daughter of Vyomabindu), according to the Jain Ramayana and chapter 7.1 [origin of the rākṣasavaṃśa and vānaravaṃśa] of Hemacandra’s 11th century Triṣaṣṭiśalākāpuruṣacaritra, an ancient Sanskrit epic poem narrating the history and legends of sixty-three illustrious persons in Jainism.
Rāvaṇa or Rāvaṇadṛṣṭānta refers to one of the 157 stories embedded in the Kathāmahodadhi by Somacandra (narrating stories from Jain literature, based on the Karpūraprakara), which is included in the collection of manuscripts at the ‘Vincenzo Joppi’ library, collected by Luigi Pio Tessitori during his visit to Rajasthan between 1914 and 1919.—The Kathāmahodadhi represents a repository of 157 stories [e.g., Rāvaṇa-dṛṣṭānta] written in prose Sanskrit, although each of them is preceded by a verse.
This paper will explore the character of Rāvaṇa from the perspective of Jain tradition and bring out its difference with Rāvaṇa as highlighted in the Hindu tradition.
Relation of Mythology and Religion
Religion and Myths are intimately related to each other. Spiritual truth and ethical code mentioned in sacred literature is made popular among the masses through mythology. Spiritual truth is like the skeleton, mythology clothes this bony structure with flesh and blood. Mythological stories explain and simplify the ethico-spiritual codes of conduct in such a way that it becomes interesting, convincing and easy to understand. Hence myths play a very important role in propagating Religion.
Subject Matter
The subject matter of Jain Mythology centers around 63 Shalakapurusas (eminent people). They are known as Pravarapurusas, Uttamapurusas and Mahapurusas. They are marked, characterized, distinguished persons (by mukti) from amongst the people at large. Besides these Shalakapurusas, Jain Mythology deals with accounts of the kings, cycle of time, structure of the universe, metaphysics, ethical codes of conduct of the four-fold community, philosophy, especially ahimsa.
The 63 Shalakapurusas are classified into five groups:
12 Chakravartis
The word ‘Chakravarti’ means one who rules over the six Khandas of Bharatvarsa. As a reward of the good karmas done in the past or as a result of ‘Nidana’ (an evil resolution to utilize the merit of one’s penance to get the desired thing in the next life) they are born as Chakravartis in the dynasty of Ikshavaku. They are handsome and mighty heroes. They rule for a very long time over the country, enjoying pleasures in the company of women and the glory due to being an emperor. Their birth is announced by 14 hazy dreams, which their mothers visualize. They possess 14 Ratnas and 9 Nidhis.. The names of the Chakravartis are:
Bharat Sagar Maghavan Sanatkumar
Shantinatha Kunthunath Aranath Subhauma Padmanabha
Harisena Jayasena Brahmadatta
24 Tirthankaras
The word Tirthankara means a Spiritual Guide, one who shows the way to cross oceans of worldly existence or one who establishes the four fold community, viz. Sadhu, Sadhavi, Sravaka and Sravika. Their mothers visualize 14 (16 according to Digambara) bright dreams before their birth. There are five auspicious occasions in the life of a Tirthankara, viz., Chyavan, Janam, Diksha, Keval and Nirvana. They have a pair of Yaksha and Yakshi as attendant God and Goddess. The information of their height, age, colour, Nakshatra of their birth and the number of their Gandharas, Sadhu, Sadhavi, Sravaka and Sravika are mentioned in various Puranas. Each Tirthankara is also assigned a Lanchana or symbol. The names of the Tirthankaras are:
Adinath Ajitanath Sambhavanath Abhinandanswami
Sumatinath Padmaprabhu Suparsvanath Chandraprabhu
Suvidhinath Sheetalnath Sreyamsanath Vasupujyaswami
Vimalanath Anantnath Dharmanath Shantinath
Kunthunath Aranath Mallinath Munisuvrataswami
Naminath Neminath Parsvanath Mahavirswami
9 Baladevas
Baladeva, Vasudeva and Prativasudeva are born as contemporaries. Baladeva and Vasudeva are step brothers and Prativasudeva is antagonistic to them.
Baladevas are very pious and gentle hearted heroes. Their birth is indicated by four dreams, which their mothers visualize. Their complexion is white and they wear blue garments. His banner portrays a palm-tree. They possess four Ayudhas – Dhanus (Bow), Gada (Mace), Musala (Pestle) and Hala (Plough). According to Digambara tradition, they possess all the Ayudhas mentioned, except the first, which they substitute for Ratnamala. They are also known as Haladhara, Balarama or Balabhadra.
9 Vasudevas
They are also called Vishnu or Narayana. They have a symbol of Srivatsa on their chest and possess a white parasol and chowries, and his banner portrays an eagle. They are hot-tempered by nature. Their complexion is dark and they wear yellow garments. Their birth is indicated by seven dreams according to Swetambara tradition and five according to Digambara. They possess seven Ayudhas – Pancajanya Sankha (Conch), Sudarshana Chakra (Disc), Kaumodaki Gada (Mace), Saranga Dhanus (Bow), Nandaka Khadga (Sword), Vanamala (Garland) and Kaustubha Ratna (Jewel). According to Digambara tradition, they possess all the Ayudhas mentioned, except the last two for which they substitute Danda and Sakti. They are mightier than their step-brother and in the war against Prativasudevas, they kill them and become Ardha-Chakravati.
9 Prati-Vasudevas
They are powerful heroes, also called Ardha-Chakravarti, as they rule three continents of the Earth. Their birth is indicated by 1-4 dreams, seen by their mother. They fight with Vasudeva and Baladevas and are killed by Vasudeva, who later rules Prativasudeva’s three continents.
The names of Baladevas, Vasudevas and Prativasudevas are as follows:
Baladevas Vasudevas Prativasudevas
Vijay Tripushta Ashvagreev
Achala Dwiprushta Tarvaka
Dharmaprabha Swayambhu Merak
Suprabha Purushottam Madhukaitabha
Sudarshan Purushasimha Nishumbha
Ananda Pundarik Balin
Nandana Datta Prahalad
Rāma Laxman Rāvaṇa
Balaram Krishna Jarasangha
Paumacariya (Jain Ramayana)
Paumacaiya is the earliest Jain work dealing with the story of Rāma written by Acharya Vimalasuri in Prakrit language in Arya metre. The life of Padma, another name of Rāma, is narrated in 118 cantos.
Vimalasuri’s Aim in Writing Paumacariya
Vimalasuri was a champion of Rationalism. According to him, the Ramayana stories by Hindu poets are most certainly not true. Absurdities regarding the life of Rāma, Rāvaṇa, Kumbhakarna and others are not worthy of belief.
As per Valmiki Ramayana, Kumbhakarna sleeps for six months and does not wake up in spite of every effort to wake him. He wakes up with devastating hunger and after satisfying his hunger, he again goes back to sleep. This seems to be ridiculous according to Vimalasuri. Another thing which troubled him was the Vanaras defeating Rakshasas. How can Vanaras defeat mighty Rakshasas? Further he also was disappointed with the golden deer seen by Sita.
Hence his aim was to eliminate all such absurdities, inconsistencies and incredible elements found in the popular stories of Rāma and to compose Paumacariya to present faithfully the story of Rāma as was proclaimed by Lord Mahavira himself. However, the main intention was the propaganda of Jainism.
Vimalasuri’s Conception of Vanaras and Rakshasas
According to him, Rakshasas are not man-eating demons with fearful and hideous appearance, nor are the Vanaras animals having long tails as described by Valmiki. Rakshasas are a race of Vidyadharas, a class of beings endowed with many supernatural qualities. Their appearance and behaviour is not beastly. They are depicted as highly civilized. They strictly follow the vows of ahimsa.
The dynasty of Vidyadharas at Lanka came to be called as Rakshasas after the great and celebrated Vidyadhara hero named Rakshasa.
The Vidyadharas of Kishkindhapura received the name of Vanaras because of their custom of wearing the pictures of Vanara as a symbol on their banners and crowns.
Vimalasuri also gives a realistic interpretation of the epithet of Rāvaṇa as Dasamukha. Rāvaṇa’s mother hangs around his neck a wondrous necklace of Ratnas in which, Rāvaṇa’s face is reflected nine times, hence Dasamukha.
Comparison between Valmiki’s Ramayana and Paumacariya
Vimala’s Conception of the Raksasas and the Vanaras
This is markedly different from that of Valmiki. “The Raksasas are not man-eating demons with fearful and hideous appearances nor are the Vanaras animals having long tails living on fruits etc., and using their nails and teeth as their weapons. They are in reality a race of the Vidyadharas, a class of beings endowed with many supernatural qualities, if not human beings in the correct sense of the term. Beastly and uncouth behaviours and appearances are not therein attributed to them. On the other hand, they are depicted as having been highly civilised, who, far from killing and devouring all animals that they could obtain, strictly adhered to the vow of ahimsa. The dynasty of Vidyadharas in Lanka came to be called Rakasas after the celebrated and great Vidyadhara hero named Raasa. The Vidyadharas of Kiskindhipura received the name of Vanaras because of their custom of wearing the pictures of monkeys as symbols on their banners and crowns.
This conception of Vimala is born of the growing spirit of rationalism of his age. The fanciful and exaggerated poetic descriptions of the Rakasas and the Vanaras given by the Valmiki-Ramayana were unacceptable to Vimala, a champion of rationalism. He, therefore, portrays the Rakasas and the Vanaras as Vidyadharas, possessed of supernatural powers and gives realistic interpretations of the appellations ‘Raasa’ and ‘Vanara’ and of Rāvaṇa’s name Dasamukha.
These aims satisfactorily explain the changes effected by Vimala in the Rāma story of Valmiki.
Apart, however, from any question of aims, there is one single episode which establishes beyond any shadow of doubt the fact that Valmiki-Ramayana is Vimala’s source, and it is that of Indra’s defeat by Ravaqa.
At the end of Canto 2 Vimala says: “Indra, though he rules over gods and men, is said to have been taken captive to Lanka by Rāvaṇa! One will be reduced to a heap of ashes at the mere thought of him who has the best elephant -Airavata and the unfailing weapon thunderbolt. At that rate we might as well affirm that the lion is overcome by gazelle, the elephant by the dog. The Ramayana stories are most certainly lies.”
Now Vimala in Canto 7 tells us of Indra, the Vidyadhara-chief. Here he describes Indra in such a way as to lead us to believe that he is another Indra (especially read his appointment of four Lokapalas, his elephant Airavata, his minister Brhaspati, his weapon Vajra, his son Jayanta, etc.). But this very Vimala when he describes the fight between Rāvaṇa and Indra, employs so many times such words as ‘Suraval’, ‘Surabhada’, ‘Surindra’, Surabala, ‘Surasenna’, ‘Sakko’, ‘Suranaho’, ‘Surahivai’ for Indra, the overlord of Vidyadharas. The use of the words Surendra etc. clearly demonstrates the truth of the remark made above that although Virnala professes to give the faithful story of Rāma as handed down by Jaina tradition, in actual practice he reveals, though unconsciously, his source viz., Valmiki-Ramayana. Otherwise how could he condemn in one breath the description of the defeat of the overlord of gods-Indra, and himself describe Indra- the Vidyadhara-chief as Surendra, Suradhipa and so on? This description has misled even Dr. Winternitz who writes: Cantos XII and XIII tell of a fight between Rāvaṇa and the God Indra (History of Indian Literature, Vol. II, p. 492).
We thus find that the origin of Vimala’s Pauma-Cariya, which is the earliest Jain form of Rāma story (not later than the third or fourth century AD.), is the Ramayana of Valmiki.
Birth of Rāvaṇa
One day in a dream Kaikasī saw a lion, in the act of tearing an elephant’s boss, enter her mouth. At dawn she related the dream and Ratnaśravas interpreted, “You will have a son, who will be arrogant to all, powerful.” From the time of that dream the wife of Ratnaśravas constantly made offerings in the shrines and carried her very precious embryo. From the time of the embryo’s conception Kaikasī’s speech became very harsh and her body firm, free from fatigue. She looked at her face in a sword, even if a mirror were at hand; she began to give orders fearlessly even in dominion over the gods. Without any cause she spoke harshly with contemptuous expressions. She did not bow her head at all even to gurus. For a long time she wished to put her foot on the heads of the wise. From the power of her embryo she acquired cruel characteristics such as these.
She bore a son, who made the seats of his enemies shake, with a life-term of more than twelve thousand years. Leaping about on the birth-couch, very strong, shaking the earth, resting on his back, with a proud red lotus of a foot, with, his hand he drew a necklace made of nine rubies from a casket standing near, a necklace which was a present in the past from Indra Bhīma.[1] From inherent arrogance the child put the necklace around his neck and Kaikasī and her attendants were amazed. She told Ratnaśravas: “The necklace which the king of the Rākṣasas gave to your ancestor, King Meghavāhana, in the past and which has been worshipped like a deity by your ancestors up to this time, which could not be lifted by others, which was made of nine rubies and guarded by a thousand Nāgas—this necklace has been seized by your child and put around his neck.” At once Ratnaśravas gave him ‘the name ‘Daśamukha’[2] because his face was united with the nine rubies. He related the following: “A certain sage was questioned by my father Sumālin when he had gone to Meru to pay homage to the shrines. The possessor of four kinds of knowledge said, ‘Whoever shall lift your ancestral necklace, made of nine rubies, he shall be an Ardhacakrin.’” Kaikasī bore another son, indicated by the dream of a sun, named Bhānukarṇa, and also called by another name, Kumbhakarṇa. Kaikasī bore a daughter, named Candraṇakhā, because her nails were like the moon. She was called Śūrpaṇakhā by the people. After some time had passed Kaikasī again bore a son, named Bibhīṣaṇa, indicated by the dream of a moon. The three full brothers, full sixteen bows tall, played agreeably day by day, fearless, in play suitable for their ages at that time.
Sen’s View About an Independent Southern Legend of Rāvaṇa
An interesting thesis is, however, advanced by Rai Saheb D.C. Sen regarding an independent Southern legend about Rāvaṇa. This thesis has a bearing on our problem, and it becomes necessary to examine it.
In his celebrated work called ”The Bengali Ramayanas”, Sen examines the material found in the Jatakas such as the Dasaratha Jataka and the Jain Ramayana of Hemacandra and arrives at the conclusion that “there were two distinct legends an early Northern Aryan legend about Rāma without any connection with the Rakasas and the Vanaras and a Southern Dravidian legend in which Rāvana figures, independent of all touch with Rāma. These two distinct legends were at a very remote period of history, much earlier than the 4th century B.C., when Valmiki is said to have composed his epic, mixed by the ballad-mongers, who invented the story of the abduction of Sita, or somehow linked the broken chain of a story of some princess who was abducted, fancying her to be Sita, and thus bridged the gulf between the two legends now presented as a homogeneous story, and Valmiki came latterly as the most eloquent exponent of this mixed story.” We confine our discussion to the so-called Southern Dravidian legend- especially the Jain Ramayana of Hemacandra.
Sen holds that “Hemacandra’s version of Rāma’s story, though comparatively modern, gives us a historical clue to the traditions that were extant in the Deccan- in the olden times. At the time when this Jain Ramayana was written, Valmiki’s Epic was known and read all over India. So it is but natural that the story as given in the latter is found incorporated in the Jain work. But the striking feature of this book is the elaborate description to be found in it of the dynasties of Raksasas and apes. The story of Rāma is rather short. The descriptions of the Raksasas and monkeys occupy a very considerable space. and many legends and stories about them are found in it which are not mentioned in the great epic. This shows that in the Southern traditions the Rakasas and monkeys had a far greater hold on popular fancy than the story of Rāma himself. The character of Ravaqa as given in this book rises to heights not scaled by the Rāvaṇa of our national magnum opus. The tapasya or the austerities undergone by Rāvaṇa show his high character and a majestic command over passions, worthy of a sage, which unmistakably prove him to be the real hero of the Southern legend. Again, “the Jain Ramayana begins with the description of the Rakasas and monkeys and introduces Rāma only in the later chapters. This is quite unlike what we find in the great epic. The Ramayana. as a matter of course, should give the story of Rāma first. The supposition naturally grows strong that in Southern India the story of Rava and of the monkeys had been widely known, and the Northern legend was introduced, later on, as a supplementary story.” Further, Sen corroborates his stand by adducing evidence from the Lankavatara Sutra, a Buddhist text composed in the second or third century AD. and the statement of Dharmakirti who flourished in the 6th Century AD.
We have quoted the words of Sen in extenso so that the reader should get a complete idea of Sen’s view on the matter in his own words.
Sen’s View Regarding the Southern Independent Rāvaṇa Legend Examined
(a) The narrative method: Jain Ramayana begins with the description of the Raksasas and Vanaras and introduces Rāma only in the later chapters; and moreover it gives an elaborate description of the dynasties of Raksasas and Vanaras and many stories and legends about them.
The Uttarakanda, although a later addition, was known to the author of Paumacartya, as we have already shown in the preceding section. The Uttarakanda is intended as a supplement and relates only events antecedent and subsequent to those described in the original poem. Thus the early history of Rāvaṇa with the Raksasa and Vanara families fills nearly forty cantos in the Uttarakanda and we have a full account of Rāvaṇa’s wars with the gods and his conquest of Lanka, which all happened long before the action of the poem begins; and the latter Cantos continue the narrative of the hero Rāma after his triumphant return to the kingdom of Ayodhya and his coronation and the poem closes with his death and that of his brothers and the founding by their descendants of various kingdoms in different parts of India. Now what Vimala Suri does is that he opens his epic with the description of the universe etc., and the various dynasties of the Raksasas and the Vanaras, the world-conquest of Rāvaṇa etc., with a view of furnishing the reader with the proper background and setting of the real story. This way of treatment will only facilitate the understanding of the story by the reader. The narrative method of Vimala Suri follows the chronological method of representing the beginning first, then the middle and finally the end. In Uttarakanda we have events antecedent and subsequent to the main story. One might appreciate Vimala’s way of unfolding the story but in itself it does not indicate that the Raksasas and Vanaras and their legends were widely known and that the Rāma-story was added later on as a supplement only. We may also point out in this connection that the Ramopakhyana in the Mahabharata opens with an account of Rāvaṇa and his family and the Vanaras. Vimala may have taken a hint from this opening in the Ramopakhyana.
(b) The elevated notion about the Vanaras and the Raksasas in the Jain Ramayanas: Vimala Suri represents the Raksasas and the Vanaras as a class of Vidyadharas and devout followers of Jainism; Raksasas are not man-eating demons and the Vanaras are not monkeys with tails, etc.
To this we answer as follows:
The descriptions of the Vanaras in the Valmiki Ramayana are open to the charge of inconsistency. They are generally represented as semi-divine beings with preternatural powers living in houses and eating and drinking like men; sometimes as monkeys pure and simple, living in woods and eating fruits and roots. The highly exaggerated descriptions of ten-faced Rāvaṇa. etc., are definitely inconsistent with other descriptions of Rāvaṇa where he is a Raasa with one face and two arms, etc. So there is sometimes allusion to the eating of human flesh and drinking of human blood by some Raksasas. But as a rule, leaving aside these exceptional instances of grossly exaggerated descriptions, the Raksasas as a class are not spoken of as cannibals.
Vimala Suri removing the inconsistencies and absurdities in the epic represents them as a class of Vidyadharas and adherents of Jainism. He was inspired probably by the legitimate purpose of representing the Jain faith as superior to the Brahmanical traditions by removing from the legend of Rāma elements which the people may have found difficult to swallow.
(c) Rāvaṇa depicted as noble and grand: No doubt Rāvaṇa is represented by Valmiki as an oppressor of gods and others; he is shown guilty of abducting Sita; he is also depicted as interrupting the performance of sacrifices. But even according to Valmiki (or Vyasa) he is not an evil incarnate. Valmiki (or rather the author of Uttarakanda tells us how Rāvaṇa and his two brothers perform austere penance for thousands of years and obtain boons from the god Brahma. He is said to have been born in a celebrated Brahmin family. In spite of his serious weaknesses, he did possess some commendable virtues. He misuses and misdirects his power and might.
Vimala, as we have already pointed out, looks upon Rāvaṇa as a Salaka-purusa-a great man. According to Jain tradition; he conceives the character of Rāvaṇa as the noblest man, a devout Jain and ideal king. His only defect is his passion for Sita which brings about his death. Thus it will be seen that the elevation of Raksasa princes is no indication of Rāvaṇa’s having been the hero of an independent legend. In fact, so far no legend of Rāvaṇa independent of any connection with the story of Rāma has come to light. Further, we have established that Vimala was acquainted with the Ramayana of Valmiki and that his work is a special edition of the Hindu story brought out to serve the adherents of Jainism as a substitute for the highly popular Ramayana of Valmiki.
Thus the differences in the treatment of the character of Rāvaṇa and in the general account of the Raksasa and the Vanara families, as between the Valmiki Ramayana and the Jain versions of the story, can all be explained as due to difference of purpose and emphasis. It is not necessary to assume the existence of an independent Rāvaṇa legend as a hypothesis to explain these differences, unless there is independent evidence to prove the existence of such a legend. And therefore the view put forward by Sen that there was a Southern independent Rāvaṇa legend cannot be accepted.
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