Abstract
Bharatiya traditions and its various values are well known in the world with various religions coexisting at the same place with their various philosophies, the mainstream of them being Hinduism. Buddhism and followed by the Jaina Sampradaya, which is cornerstone of Bharat’s enduring cultural edifice is recognized as one of the world’s ancient Dharmic religions and cultural traditions, the religion whose doctrine revolves around ahimsa towards every living being. The two major branches (Digambara and Svetambara) of Jainism stimulate self-control (or shramana, ‘self-reliance’) and spiritual development through a path of peace for the soul to progress to the ultimate goal. Recent discourses that amplify Jainism’s uniqueness, while diminishing its common Dharmic roots with Vedic and other ancient Bharatiya traditions, risk fostering unnecessary divisions between Jainism and Hinduism. Jainism is a religion followed by more than four million people from different regions of the world. According to scholars’ opinions and historicity of Jainism, it has 24 Tirthankaras with Mahavira being the last one. So, the present Jainism religious philosophy was shaped by him. By taking this argument the date of origin of Jainism goes back to 3000 B.C. According to Jainism philosophy, three basic distinct elements can elevate you and help you to get liberation and find the right path or moksa-marga. These are; right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct, collectively called Ratna-traya (threefold jewels). The main principles or vows of Jainism for the right conduct are five in number including; Ahimsa, Aparigraha, Asetya, Brahmacarya, and Anekanta-Vada or Satya. Ahimsa is about non-violence in simple words. With Belief that gods are not creator of the world, the status of gods and goddesses among Jain followers is disputed. Some Jains do not worship deities but many Jains pay homage to gods and goddesses as mediators between the perfected souls of the Jinas and the imperfect world of human experience. Divine figures are very common in Jain temples and are frequently at the centre of religious rituals. The focus of worship among Jains is the 24 Jinas. Believers respect and worship the Jinas, who are teachers and sources of the doctrine. The Jinas have reached the summit of the Jain universe – the siddha-śilā – and do not belong to any of the realms of the three worlds. In these kingdoms, however, lives a wide range of deities who are integrated into the system of Jain values to different extents. The divinities may have various roles and may be associated with concepts such as knowledge and worldly matters such as childbirth and wealth. Lesser gods are also worshipped in Jainism, who may be local divinities or sets of deities who represent or personify certain features or ideas.
Many of the major deities are known under the same names or different names in other Indian religious traditions. All the deities that make up the various groups of the Jain pantheon are supposed to live in one of the three worlds of the Jain universe, namely the: lower world – adho-loka, middle world – madhya-loka and upper world – ūrdhva-loka. In the Goddess of Lakes, that is madhyaloka, Śrī or Lakṣmī, which is the major goddess for Hindus is also the major Goddess of Jains. This does not necessarily mean that Jainism has ‘borrowed’ them. The origins of Jain gods and goddesses are indeed complex and my paper tries to venture into veneration of Goddess Lakshmi, especially her Gajalaxmi form in Jain traditions.
Introduction
Bharatiya traditions and its various values are well known in the world with various religions coexisting at the same place with their various philosophies, the mainstream of them being Hinduism. Buddhism and followed by the Jaina Sampradaya, which is cornerstone of Bharat’s enduring cultural edifice is recognized as one of the world’s ancient Dharmic religions and cultural traditions, the religion whose doctrine revolves around ahimsa towards every living being. The two major branches (Digambara and Svetambara) of Jainism stimulate self-control (or shramana, ‘self-reliance’) and spiritual development through a path of peace for the soul to progress to the ultimate goal. Recent discourses that amplify Jainism’s uniqueness, while diminishing its common Dharmic roots with Vedic and other ancient Bharatiya traditions, risk fostering unnecessary divisions between Jainism and Hinduism. Jainism is a religion followed by more than four million people from different regions of the world. According to scholars’ opinions and historicity of Jainism, it has 24 Tirthankaras with Mahavira being the last one. So, the present Jainism religious philosophy was shaped by him. By taking this argument the date of origin of Jainism goes back to 3000 B.C.
Jainism shares with the other religions, like Hinduism, Buddhism and Sikhism, with which it has co-existed in India for centuries, a cosmology that situates human existence in a cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. As in these other religions, this cycle is fueled by a principle of cause and effect, or karma–a kind of ethical law of gravitation, according to which evil deeds lead to evil results for those who commit them, and good deeds similarly lead to good results. Because the death of the physical body is no guarantee that one has already experienced all of the consequences of one’s actions–and indeed the presence of massive injustice in the world certainly indicates that this is not the case–one is drawn inexorably back into the cycle of life by one’s karma and is reborn in a form and at a time and place appropriate to the fruition of one’s past deeds. Questions such as the rising population of the human species do not have an impact on this worldview, because it is not only human beings who have souls. The soul, or essential consciousness, of a living being can pass to a variety of forms–again, any form appropriate for bringing about the necessary results of one’s past actions. The ultimate goal in this philosophy is to become free from the cycle of rebirth altogether; for even a good life will come to an end. Goods generated by karma are always impermanent. Life in the rebirth cycle is always lived in the shadow of death. This is the inevitable suffering, or duhkha, emphasized in the First Noble Truth of Buddhism: the transience of existence in the material world. A major emphasis of Jainism is therefore ascetic practice that is designed to curb the reactions of attraction and aversion that we generally feel for pleasant and unpleasant experiences, as well as to purge the soul of the karmic particles already present within it. The soul in a state of calm equanimity does not attract additional karmic matter. And the unpleasant experiences associated with ascetic practice–the hunger induced by fasting, or the discomfort of meditating for long periods in uncomfortable positions–borne patiently, can accelerate the “burning off” of bad karma. The most destructive passions, bringing the karma that entails the most unpleasant consequences for a living being, are those associated with himsa–the desire to bring harm to another. It is for this reason that Jainism places such a strong emphasis on nonviolence in thought, word, and deed. Ahimsa is not only the absence of violent behavior it is also the absence of even the desire to do harm.
Jainism has 24 Tirthankaras and Mahavira was the last of them. So, the present Jainism religious philosophy was shaped by him. By taking this argument the date of origin of Jainism goes back to 3000 B.C, even earlier than Aryans or Dravidians culture, in Ganga valley. Jina has taken ideas of four rules from his ancestral Tirthankaras. For example, the rules of Aparigraha, Ahimsa, and Anekantavada are taken The principle of celibacy[1] was added to it by Mahavira. And Jina is a term associated with every enlightened teacher in Jain philosophy.
According to Jainism philosophy, three basic distinct elements can elevate you and help you to get liberation and find the right path or moksa-marga. These are – right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct, collectively called Ratna-traya (threefold jewels). Jain’s philosophy has no belief in an ever-perfect God like other religions. The main principles or vows of Jainism for the right conduct are five in number including – Ahimsa, Aparigraha, Asetya, Brahmacarya, and Anekanta-Vada or Satya. Ahimsa is about non-violence in simple words.
Mahavira did not believe in the existence of God. He appreciated a Jina or conqueror more than a God. In Jainism dharma, Jains are inclined to share a firm belief in divine beings but not in God. According to their doctrine, the universe and its constituents were existing from the beginning. They deny accepting immaterial entities as a creator of material entities. They assume that the universe is governed by its natural laws and perfect souls. They believe that every soul has an inherent quality of holiness or godliness and possesses infinite power. They believe that a person after getting salvation from misery and rebirth cycle through right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct gets the status of God, so a God also has to be born first as a human being and go through the process of liberation. This aspect of their categorization of God has made Jainism philosophy or religion something beyond theistic or atheistic which is called transtheistic. Jinas are neither divine beings nor avatars of gods. They are enlightened human beings who spread the unchanging principals of Jainism. Jains believe that spiritual progress, which aims towards eventual enlightenment and liberation, is the responsibility of each soul. Jinas are removed from everyday human life and do not respond to the prayers of believers. Each Jina has a yaksha or yakshi often depicted in art. As Gods, these attendants are not liberated and thus can act in the affairs of human beings.
All the deities that make up the various groups of the Jain pantheon are supposed to live in one of the three worlds of the Jain universe, namely the:
- lower world – adho-loka
- middle world– madhya-loka
- upper world – ūrdhva-loka.
This is one way to group them (Jain and Fischer 1978). But there are also some categories that cut across this system, such as the dik-kumārīs. Moreover, clan or family deities – kula-devatās – who are generally recognised and quite widespread, are not part of the Jain pantheon because they are local divinities who are not allocated places in the Jain universe.
The Jinas have reached the summit of the Jain universe – the siddha-śilā – and do not belong to any of the realms of the three worlds. In these kingdoms, however, lives a wide range of deities who are integrated into the system of Jain values to different extents. Living in allocated places in the Jain universe, the pantheon of Jain deities comprises various groups and some key individual figures. The divinities may have various roles and may be associated with concepts such as knowledge and worldly matters such as childbirth and wealth. Lesser gods are also worshipped in Jainism, who may be local divinities or sets of deities who represent or personify certain features or ideas.
Many of the major deities are known under the same names or different names in other Indian religious traditions. For example, Śrī or Lakṣmī is a major goddess for Hindus as well as Jains. Their Jain names may be identical to or in differing forms from those found in other Indian faiths. This does not necessarily mean that Jainism has ‘borrowed’ them. The origins of Jain gods and goddesses are complex and have to be specially investigated.
Although they may be members of groups of deities, some Jain divinities have personalities as individual figures and are worshipped as such. Associations with wealth or childbirth, for example, partly account for their popularity and they may be the focus of special religious rites.
Other Jain gods and goddesses are worshipped primarily as groups. There may not be much substantial difference among the individual members although each usually has divine attributes and a divine vehicle.
Evidence of the deities’ presence in iconography around images of the Jinas or as independent figures is growing, with investigations being carried out in regions which had previously been neglected, such as Bihar and Bengal or Tamil Nadu. In addition, recent examinations of sculptures, such as Mevissen, show that groups of deities, such as the guardians of directions, dik-pālas and the nine planets, nava-grahas are more common than scholars had so far thought.
Some gods are local deities connected with specific places, who may be worshipped only by people from that area. However, some have gained broader popularity in recent decades, such as Nākoḍā Bhairava, whose appeal has spread far and wide from his original home in Rajasthan.
As mentioned earlier, all the deities that make up the various groups of the Jain pantheon are supposed to live in one of the three worlds of the Jain universe,
The table below shows their Allocation:
Jainism does not believe in deities with divine powers in the traditional sense at the level of philosophy. However, Saraswati, Lakshmi, the Sasan deities, and demigods like Yaksha, Yakshini, and Nagas are given a place in their sculptures and mythology. To see what the original nature of these deities meant to the Jains, we have to understand the history of the goddess Lakshmi herself.
There are five Parameshthins – (i) Siddha Parameshthin, (ii) Arhat (or Tirthaukaras) Parameshthin, (iii) Acharya Parameshthin, (iv) Upadhyaya Parameshthin and (v) Sadhu Parameshthin.
Besides the above-mentioned objects of worship of the Jainas, they have a pantheon of their own, in which they reckon four classes of superhuman beings—(i) Residential or Bhavanapatis, (ii) Peripatetic or Vyantaras (iii) Stellar or Jyotishkas and (iv) Heavenly or Vaimanikas.
One important and interesting custom may be mentioned here in this connection is that the Jainas, not unlike their Hindu brethren notably the members of the mercantile community, offer their homage to Ganesa and Lakshmi in preference to other deities. Hence in the Jaina religion Lakshmi, goddess of fortune, plays an important part. In the Jaina pantheon, she is one of the most important deities, and she is highly honoured like her counterparts in Buddhism and Hinduism.
In an early Jaina text, the Achara Dinakara, the goddesses have been divided into three classes (1) Prasada Devis or installed images, (2) Kuladevis or Tantric goddesses and (3) Sampradaya Devis or class goddesses.’ Apart from the goddesses mentioned above, there are other female divinities recognised and worshipped by the Jainas. The names of divinities are 16 Sruta or Vidyadevis, the Astamatrikas such as Brahmani, Maheshvari etc., the mothers of the Tirthahkaras such as Marudevi, Vijaya etc., Kshetrapata, the Bhairavas, and Lakshmi Devi.
These are six goddesses who live on islands in the middle of the six lakes – hrada – located on the six ranges of mountains which divide the Jambū-dvīpa in the middle world. They are personifications of feminine concepts. They are often called mahā-devīs – ‘great goddesses’ – and their names are often mentioned in Tantric modes of worship and other contexts. Sri or Lakshmi is goddess of lakes who resides on the Mountain range of Himvant, Sikharin.
Goddess Lakshmi who is goddess of lakes, also known as Śrī, who resides in the lake at the top of Mount Himavant, is also the goddess of wealth and prosperity. She is also known as Lakṣmī, more rarely Padmā or Ramā. She has the same name among Hindus. It may be stated that the idea and conception of Lakshmi, the goddess of fortune and wealth in Jainism is very old because there are references to this goddess in the Kalpasutra from the objects of Trisall’s auspicious dreams. In the Kalpasutra, more correctly designated the Paryusana Kalpa, 36, the ‘abhiseya’ of Sri is one of the fourteen auspicious dreams of Trisala, foretelling the birth of Mahavira. Of these fourteen dreams, the fourth one pertaining to the goddess Sri illustrated by two elephants deserves our attention. Jainas and Hindus, both worship the goddess Lakshmi. Like the Hindus, the goddess of wealth has been honoured by the members of the Jaina families on special days. The special day for showing honour to the goddess is called ‘Dhanaterasa’ by the Jainas. The puja which ‘involves sprinkling auspicious red powder and panchamrat or the ‘five nectars’ consisting of milk, curd, clarified butter, honey, and sugar onto silver coins’.
Many times to show its importance, she is painted on manuscript pages or embroidered on cloth manuscript covers, and usually appears in larger size than the other dreams Kalpa- Sūtra manuscripts, for instance this page depicting the Śvetāmbara dreams
As we saw earlier, Goddess Lakshmi is the Goddess of Wealth. Her special form, Gaja Lakshmi, is known as Sridevi in Jain literature and, in the Vedic tradition, as the consort of Vishnu, in the form of Lakshmi Narayan. Per the ‘Sri sukta shloka 23’ she is one of the most auspicious forms of Lakshmi. We know that there are eight forms of Lakshmi, revered on different festivals like Diwali, Navratri, Labhpancham etc. There are many stotras dedicated to these forms such as a Kanakdhara, Vasudhdarvidhaya, Lakshmidhara, Esht-dhara Siddhtantra and Sri Sukta jeve stotra. Sri is the root of Lakshmi and that is bhakti towards Paramatama.. As mentioned in Vardhman Shakrastav “Sarv Sampda Mul Jayte Jinanurag (Alpak -14)” That means pious behavior and traits is mother of Lakshmi” and her spread of the meaning of the word ‘Lakshmi’ is very broad. The fourth dream of Trishala devi per the Kalpa-Sutra mentions Gajalakshmi or Lakshmi which clearly indicates that she was deeply venerated by Jainas.
‘Tatta puno punnachanda bayana uchchayagaya than natath।
Sarnthiyam palatha rubam supaitthiya kanagamaya kumma sarisob।।
Man chalanam achchunnaya pina raiya mamsala unnaya।
Tanu tambaniddha naham kamala-palasa-sukomala kara charona।।
Kamala-baramgulim karubimdabatta battanupurva jamkham nigura/
Janum gaya-bara-kara-sarisa-pibarorum chamikara raiya।।
Mehala jutta kamta bithinna soni chakam jachchamjana।
Vamara jalaya payara-ujjuya-sania-samhiya tanuya aijja।।
Ladaha sukumala mauya ramanijja roma raim।
Navi-mandala-samdara bisala-pasatha jaghanam।।
Kara-yala-maiya pasattha tibaliya majajham nana।
Mani-kana^a-rayana-bimala-mahatabannijjavarana bhusana।।
Biraiya namgubamgim hara birayamta kamda mala।
Parinaddha-jalajalimta thau juyala bimala-kalasam।।
Aia-pattiya bivusiyena suvaga jalujjalena।
Mutta kalabenam urattha dinara malaya biraiena।।
Kamtha-mani-suttaenaya-kumdala jayalullasamta।
Amsobasatta sodamta svapnavenam sova-guna samuda।।
Enam asana kiidambi enam kamalamaia bisala ramanijja।
Loyanam kamala pajjalamla kara gahiya mukka toyam।।
Liiasa baya kaya pakkha enam subised kosin।
Ghana sanaha lambamta kesa hatayam-paum duha।।
Kamala basinim sirim bhagabaim pichchhyai himabamta।
Sela-schare disa gaimdoru-pibara-karavi sichchamanim।।”
“She (Mother of Mahavira) saw with the face of full moon Sri, the goddess of beauty and fortune, on the top of Mount Himavat, reposing on a lotus in the lotus lake. The goddess Sri is anointed with the water from the strong and large trunks of guardian elephants. She was seen as seated on a lofty-throne. Her firmly placed feet resembled a golden tortoise and her dyed, fleshy, convex, thin, red, smooth nails were set in swelling muscles. Her hands and feet would be like the leaves of the lotus and her fingers and toes were soft and excellent. Her legs were round and well-formed adorned with Kuruvindavarta (one kind of ornament). Her fleshy thighs were like the proboscis of a good elephant. Her hips were lovely and broad which were encircled by a golden zone. Her beautiful belly was adorned by a circular navel which contained an excellent row of hair, black as Collyrium, bees or clouds, straight, continuous, thin, admirable, handsome, soft and downy. Her waist which contained the three-folds could be encompassed with one hand. All parts of her body were adorned with ornaments composed of many jewels and precious stones. Her cup-like pair of breasts were encircled by a garland of Kunda flowers in which glittered a string of pearls. She wore strings of pearls made by diligent and clever artists, shining with wonderful strings, a necklace of jewels with a string of Dinaras, and a trembling pair of ear-rings, touching her shoulder, diffused a brilliancy; but the united beauties and charms of these ornaments were only subservient to the loveliness of her face. Her eyes were lovely and large and pure like the water lily. She sprinkled about the sap from two lotus flowers which she hold in her splendid hands and gracefully fanned herself. Her hair is glossy, black, thick, smooth which hung down in a braid.”
Some examples of Lakshmi in Jain Literature:
In a Ras – Ref to Gautamswami -Created by Shri Udayvant Muni – “Var Mygal Lacchi Ave” refers to Gajalakshmi.
In “Santikar Stotra” by Achraya Shri Munisundersuri – in Gath 4 of Pithika 5 Sridevi is mentioned as Adyasakti Devi
“Vani -TihyunSamni Sirideve -Jakhray Ganipindga : ।
Gah -Dispal-surida, sayvi-Rakkhute।।”
Vaghshvari, Sarasvati, Tribhuvansvami, Sridevi, Yakshraj Ganipatik, Navgrah Kuber and 10 dikpla 64 Indra – I Pray to them bless all Jaina Devotees. Also ancient Manuscript painting has the image of Sridevi flanked by Elephants.
In Bhakatmar Stotra, in the 26th Stanza there is a Mahalakshmi mantra of 10 letters – ॐ श्रीं ह्रीं क्लीं महालक्ष्म्यै नमः (oṃ śrīṃ hrīṃ klīṃ mahālakṣmyai namaḥ)
oṃ – Pranavbija, śrīṃ- Lakshmi bija, hrīṃ – Mayabija, klīṃ – Kambija, Mahālakṣmyai refers to Mahalakshmi and Namaḥ – Pallavbija or Shodhan bija (bow)
Every shloka explains its importance along with stories connected to it, for example the story of a merchant (Vanik) whose poverty was eliminated by Mahalakshmi.
Bhakatmar Stotra is recited to Adinath and Rishabhdev which pleases goddess Chakresvari due to which Mahalakshmi also gets pleased as both of them are friends or concurrent. One ancient manuscript of Bhakatmar Stotra has GajaLakshmi.
Acharya Shree Hemachandrasurji, in the Sakalārhat Stotra, refers to Rishabdev as “Adhisthana Shivshriya,” meaning he is the bearer of Kaivalya (absolute knowledge) and Moksha Lakshmi (goddess of liberation).”
Shree and Lakshmi are Mentioned in Bruhd Shanti -“Aum Shreem Hrim Dhruti-Mati Kirti- Kranti Buddhi- Lakshmi – Megh Vidhaya- Sadhana – Pravesh Niveshashu -Sugruhit -Namano -Jayntu- te- Jinendra”
One manuscript entitled ‘Lakshmi-Stotra’ is preserved in Jaina Bhavan, Calcutta.
In this manuscript the following verses are found about Lakshmi, the goddess of fortune and wealth.
Samsararnava naukatvam samsararnavatarini Sariisara dukhah samani samsara phalabardhini ।
Mahamaya dhyayammia bhayanasakoridhruvam.’Daridrepujyamandhi dhana ravidia dayini ।
Adhara…. Sarbesam prakasatdhyayakarini Pranarupa tathakhayata tvam hi sarvagunasraya ।।
Like the Hindu goddess Mahalakshmi, the name Mahalakshmi as the goddess of fortune and wealth has been found in Jaina religion.
Two manuscripts have been found entitled Maha-Lakshmi-Stotram, one is preserved in the Asiatic Society, Calcutta and the other is in the personal collection of Mr. M. Nahata, Calcutta.
The following verses from the M. S. of the Asiatic Society,Calcutta, describe the characteristics of the goddess Mahalakshmi as thus:
‘ Lokanarii hitakarini dustanarii dukshah…. Dayika devanam tranahetabe’
The M. S. which is in the personal collection of Mr. Nahata describes the goddess Mahalakshmi as follows:
“Adya pranabastatah Ithmayakamakharam tatha।
Mahalakshmai namaschante mantroyam dasabarnakah।।
Patyagrapita kusumaih saihbritaih pitakarnakaih।
Lakshajapena sa-siddhih sa syat kotischarodhanaih।।
Pitavaranam suvarnathgim padmahastamkitam tatha।
Dhyayatyanena mantrena savabeta prthibipatih।।
Diparii purasarlkrtya svarnapuspai japanti ye।
Ganitairbasareste syu-Ioke satrusamrdhayah।
Kshirodatanayam devim kamadhatrim Haripriyam।
Visvabyapam gajarudharii Mahalakshmirii namasyaham।।
Pinastana samakirnarii praude bayasi sasthitam।
Bhusitani svarnavaranaih pitabastram namasyaham।।
Gaje sahkhe madhauchhatre padme-chakre jinalaye।
Mauktike bidrume svarne ravidia parameSvarl।।
Grtedugdhe tatha channe bastre rupye cha dhatusu।
Jale gaje haye ratne ravidia paramesvari।
Sa me bhavatu samtusta dasoasmyasyaschakimkarak।
Akshaya bhava chendrani pranamami punah punah।
Ityesa kamala vidya na deya kulaje sathe।
Krtaghne rajasakirne kustite dharmabarjite।।
Na kasyapihi mantroyam kathoniyo bipaschita।
Yasodharma bihinasya sarbada bhutimichchhata।।”
Putting the first letter ‘Om’ then ‘Srim; after that ‘Hrim Klim’ and finally ‘Mahalakshmaih namah’—thus the mantra containing ten letters is completed.
If one recites this mantra one lakh times, worshipping goddess Lakshmi with new yellow flowers or with the flowers having yellow petals becomes ‘Siddha’
If one meditates on goddess Lakshmi, who is of yellow colour like gold with lotus flower in her hand, he becomes the owner of the earth or “Prthivipati’. Whoever having put a lamp (dipaka) with yellow flames recites this mantra, he becomes rich like Indra within a few days, I bow to the goddess Mahalakshmi, the daughter of milk-sea, beloved of Lord Vishnu, fulfiller of all the desires, pervading the whole world, mounting the elephant. I bow to Mahalakshmi possessing developed breasts being fully adult, adorned with golden ornaments wearing yellow cloth. The great goddess who always resides in the elephant, conches, honey lotuses, wheel, and in the abodes of the Jinas and also in the pearls, in the coral and in gold. The great goddess who is ever pervading the best things like ‘ghrta’, milk, rice, clothes, silver and such other metals, water, elephants, horses, and gems. May she be pleased unto me as I am always at her service. I bow to you again and again, be here in everlasting state.
This is Kamalavidya and this vidya should not be imparted to a lowborn man and the ungrateful or to one whose mind is full of lust and who is ugly and whose conduct is devoid of virtue. The learned men who are in prosperity should never disclose this mantra to one who is not famous and virtuous”.
It is stated that the Jainas observe a large number of festivals of their own. Along with the observance of their own festivals many Jainas celebrate some of the Hindu festivals such as Holi, Dipavali or Divali, Dasara, Ganesa-chaturthi, Makara sankranti, Sitalasaptami, Durgashtami, Gauri and Navaratri.
Of these festivals, the Dipavali festival is connected with the goddess Lakshmi which is celebrated amongst the Jainas in different parts of India. Dipavali stands for Deepavali—a garland or chain of lights. Significantly enough, it comes off in the last days of the dark quarter of the moon in the month of Kartika. It has a great significance to merchants, who close their annual accounts, illuminate shops and offices and worship ‘Lakshmi’, the goddess of fortune and wealth. They also worship their account books and a pile of silver coins. A gold coin or a rupee is placed on the new account book by way of Lakshmipuja along with rice, fruits, betel leaves and nuts, and red powder is sprinkled over all and the words ‘laksa labha’ (jain of a lakh) are repeated. The first day of the bright fortnight of Kartika begins the new year. In honour of Lakshmi, jewels and ornaments are polished. Sweets are especially prepared. During the worship the priest puts an auspicious mark on the forehead of the Jaina householder. Many Jain Granths have also described Lakshmi on Garuda- in the Shvetambar sect”
Iconography
Though the images of Tirthankaras take a prominent part in the Jaina iconography, yet the images of other gods and goddesses do play a significant part in Jaina iconography. It is stated that many of the Brahmanic divinities were assimilated into the Jaina pantheon. Ideas of prosperity, wealth, auspiciousness etc., may be found in the arts, such as in the images of Ganesa, Sri (goddess of fortune and wealth), Kubera and Indra. Modern exploitations of the ancient Jaina sites’ have helped Jaina history and art to investigate with a new vision, many Jaina images.
In the temple at Sarnath we find the image of Shreyansanatha. We also see the figures of other deities such as Sasanadevata, the Lakshmi ‘the Goddess of Fortune), Ganesa, etc.
Kharavela was regarded in the inscriptions as the worshipper of all religions and repairer of all temples. The internal evidence of the Hathigumpha inscription as well as the sculptures of the earlier caves of Khandagiri throw light on the different aspects of Jainism as was practiced in Kalinga during that period. It shows that the worship of various sacred symbols like Baddhamahgala, Svastika, Nandipada and Vrksa-caitya had found their way in Jaina religious practices.
The Jain temple of Khajuraho has eight Lakshmis at different places, out of which three are in the Parshvanth temple on the North and South walls, the rest are in other parts. Even the Adinath temple has Lakshmi on it.
In Western India, the Mahavira temple, Varman, had suffered repeated renovation as well as damages—one in 1186 and the other in 1390. The Mulaprasada is original but relatively unpretentious and in elevation starts directly from the Vedibandha. The Brahmantika once possessed the traditional twenty-four Devakulikas with colonnades. The cells have disappeared but the basement of the corridor is still intact in the north and south sections. The eastern corridor possessed two samatala ceilings, one carved with Ambika, the other, the inscribed one, of similar workmanship is dated to 1186 and shows the figure of Gajalakshmi.
In the southern part of India just like Buddhism, Jainism also had a comprehensive role. There are many cave temples, basadis, and Jain tirthas. Chandragiri Temple complex – Sravanabelagola in Hassan, Karnataka is one of the famous tirth, locally known as chikkabetta. In ancient times it was known as Kalbappu in Kannada. A portion of this complex is Tirthagiri & Rishigiri. There are several basadis inside this calm and serene temple complex, and most of the temples are based on Dravidian style of temple architecture .The oldest being that of the Gangas – the eighth century AD. But the history says that this place has been in existence from 200 BC and 1000 yrs older than the Indragiri / Vindhyagiri / Doddabetta (where Bahubali’s statue is standing). The huge – Bramhadeva pillar – originally appears to have had eight elephants at the base in eight directions. Unfortunately some of them are damaged .The pillar was erected in 974 AD to commemorate the death of Ganga king Marasimha II. It has beautiful Gajalakshmi and many other Jain basadis also have Gajalakshmi at their entrance. There are many basadis found in Karnataka in places like Halebidu, ancient Hoysala temples, Lakkundi, and many other places. Many have Gajalakshmi on gateways or inside.
Bhinmal, formerly known as Shrimal (and many other names) in Rajasthan which is also called birth place of Mahalakshmi. After the episode of Padmavati in South India there is an episode of Gautam who after being put in a disgraceful situation by the community embraced Jainism. Since Lakshmi is the primary goddess of the region, many of his followers prayed to Lakshmi. This also could be one of the reasons for her veneration, especially in western Region – Bhinmal is also a Jain Tirth near Mount Abu where there is a vast propagation of Jainism.
There is an ancient Jain temple in Maharashtra which has gone under waters of the dam that again carries a beautiful Gajalakshmi on top of it. Thankfully under similar circumstances in Gujarat and Rajasthan, the idols were preserved and the temples rebuilt again and again with Lakshmi or GajaLakshmi on their gateway.
Sri or Goddess of wealth has been described in a Digambara M. S. Here she is depicted as four-handed and bears a flower and lotus. In a Svetarabara M. S., goddess Lakshmi is represented as riding on an elephant and holding lotuses. In Svetambara accounts, it is seen that this Goddess Lakshmi is shown seated in a lotus and her four hands adorning varada, rosary, kamandal and a pitcher.
A small ivory fan with twenty one leaves has been preserved in the National Museum, Vienna. It has a richly carved and excellent decorated handle. In the centre there is a figure of Lakshmi in the padmasana. Above this figure, we can see a peacock with an ornamented tail going up and reaching the leaves of the fan.
There are many Jaina images in the Akhandalesvara temple. On the left side of the pedestal there is a figure of the Goddess Lakshmi. This figure is shown standing on two lotuses and it is flanked by elephants.
Of the Sunga period (C. 150 to 50 B. C.) on the door ways of Ananta Cave there is a figure of the so-called Maya-devi who is shown lustrated by two elephants. Such figures are variously recognised as Nativity of Buddha. She is also one of the auspicious fourteen dreams described in the Jaina Kalpa-Sutra.
A wooden panel has been found in the Sri Pandya-Graha at Patan, North Gujarat where these fourteen dreams are illustrated with descriptions of the Goddess Lakshmi.
The illustrated palm-leaf manuscript of the Mahaviracharita, the 10th Parvan of the Trishashthisa-lakapurusa charita, dated 12.37 A. D. by Hemachandra contains three miniatures. The third miniature of this manuscript is of Sri-Devi who is seated with folded hands. She adors a saree with a green choli.
The illustrated palm-leaf manuscript of Ogha Niryukti in the collection of the Jain Grantha Bhandar, Chhani (Baroda state) dated 1 161 A. D. contains nineteen goddesses including sixteen Vidyadevis. There is a miniature of the Goddess Mahalakshmi with a red background. This figure has four hands. She is seated on a lotus seat and wears a black saree. The body is of yellow colour. She has four hands. She holds in her upper hands open lotus flowers. On two sides there are elephants ready to sprinkle on the goddess. She holds in the lower right hand a rosary and in the left hand a golden pitcher (Purnakumbha).
In a Kalpasutra manuscript (C. 1427 A. D.) which is preserved in the Hemachandracharya Jain Mandir, Patan, there is one miniature of the goddess Lakshmi The background is red. The Goddess is seated under a torana. She wears a green bodice and blue sari decorated with a geese pattern. She has four hands. In the upper hands she holds lotus flowers with elephants resting on them. Her lower right hand exhibits the varadamudra and she holds in the lower left hand a coconut.
During the Paryushan Parva on the occasion of Mahavira Janma Vanchan which is the fourth of the fourteen dreams of Trishala Devi where she saw Goddess Lakshmi. On this day, there is the highest ghee boli observed with a hope that Goddess Lakshmi will bless them and get them more wealth (wealth here is not materialistic wealth but spiritual and other kinds of wealth too). After the Paryushan Parva is completed Lakshmi statue is carried over the head and many merchants including Jains request for the statue to be brought into their shops on the way of the procession to get her blessings.
Conclusion
In conclusion, we can say that Jainism is an extremely non-materialistic religion. The only quest that was worth pursuing is of moksha or salvation – the freedom from the cycle of birth and death. Based on these are; right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct, collectively called Ratna-traya (threefold jewels). The main principles or vows of Jainism for the right conduct are five in number including; Ahimsa, Aparigraha, Asetya, Brahmacarya, and Anekanta-Vada or Satya. Ahimsa is about non-violence in simple words. The basic theme of Jainism dharma is to elevate humans by passing through sufferings and enlighten them with the right knowledge and right faith. With belief that gods are not creator of the world the status of gods and goddesses among Jain followers is disputed. Jains pay homage to gods and goddesses as mediators between the perfected souls of the Jinas and the imperfect world of human experience. Divine figures are very common in Jain temples and are frequently at the centre of religious rituals. The focus of worship among Jains is the 24 Jinas. Believers respect and worship the Jinas, who are teachers and sources of the doctrine. The Jinas have reached the summit of the Jain universe – the siddha-śilā – and do not belong to any of the realms of the three worlds. In these kingdoms, however, lives a wide range of deities who are integrated into the system of Jain values to different extents. The divinities may have various roles and may be associated with concepts such as knowledge and worldly matters such as childbirth and wealth.
All the deities that make up the various groups of the Jain pantheon are supposed to live in one of the three worlds of the Jain universe, namely the: lower world – adho-loka, middle world – madhya-loka and upper world – ūrdhva-loka. Goddess of Lakes resides in madhya-loka. Śrī or Lakṣmī is which is major goddess for Hindus is also major Goddess of Jains. This does not necessarily mean that Jainism has ‘borrowed’ them. In Jain tradition, Sri and Lakshmi are present in both texts and temples, and have been venerated in Jainism and found adorned in many Jain temple structures.
Her icons and sculptures are found at the Jain temple of Sarnath, the cave temples of Udaygiri and Khandagiri, the Parsvanath temple at Khajuraho, the Mahavira temple at Osian and the Vimlavasahi temple (Jain group of temples) at Mount Abu. In Rani Gupha, a group of caves in Udaygiri, the form of abhisheka Lakshmi (symbolizing the consecration of the goddess) is sculpted on the torana (gateway), where she is depicted as holding a pair of lotus, rising from a lake of lotus and flanked by two elephants consecrating her.
The form of Gaja Lakshmi is found in the eastern corridor of the Mahavira temple. In the Vimalavasahi temple, one of the most popular Jain temples, the goddess is depicted as a four-armed Gaja Lakshmi seated in Padmasana (lotus pose) on a pedestal supported by lotus and water vases. She holds lotuses in her upper two hands and her lower hands are in dhyana mudra (meditative hand pose). Lakshmi is also celebrated in the festivals of Jains. Diwali is among the most important festivals of the Jain tradition. The goddess is worshipped as a family deity in the homes of many Jain traders or business people.
The presence and adaptation of Sri/Lakshmi in traditions beyond Hinduism exhibit the rich cultural and religious diversity of the Indian subcontinent.
In Jainism, she is venerated as the goddess of wealth and prosperity, associated with auspiciousness and abundance. From the early Buddhist cave temples to the Jain temples, Shri/Lakshmi has found her place in different religious contexts, evolving and taking on new meanings.
Few Meanings/ Definition of Lakshmi in Jainism
1) Lakṣmī (लक्ष्मी).—The name of a Goddess residing over the padmahrada (big lotus-island) which lies in the center of a lake named Puṇḍarīka. This lake is situated on top of the mountain range (varṣadharaparvatas) named Śikharin, one of the six mountain ranges in Jambūdvīpa. Jambūdvīpa lies at the centre of madhyaloka (‘middle world’) and is the most important of all continents and it is here where human beings reside.
1) Lakṣmī (लक्ष्मी) or Śrī is the name of a deity commonly depicted in Jaina art and iconography.—Śrī or goddess of wealth has been described in a Digambara manuscripts as a four-handed figure holding a flower and lotus. The same goddess in a Śvetāmbara manuscript is represented as riding on an elephant and holding, as symbol, lotuses. The worship of Lakṣmī has a great hold upon the orthodox Jainas of both communities. The special day on which honour is done to the goddess of wealth is called Dhanaterasa. On the same occasion, the Śvetāmbara women polish their jewellery and ornaments in honour of Lakṣmī.
The description of Jaina Lakṣmī (Śrī), given above, does not far differ from that of the Brahmanic Śrī or Kamalā. Only in one point, it appears, namely in the riding on an elephant, the Jaina image presents an originality. It must be noted here that the conception of Lakṣmī even in Jainism is very old as the goddess is mentioned in the Kalpasūtra as one of the objects of Triśalā’s dream.
2) Lakṣmī (लक्ष्मी) is the name of a Yoginī mentioned in various Jaina manuscripts, often being part of a list of sixty-four such deities. How the cult of the Tantrik Yoginīs originated among the vegetarian Jainas is unknown. The Yoginīs (viz., Lakṣmī) are known as attendants of Śiva or Pārvatī. But in the case of Jainism, we may suppose, as seen before, that they are subordinates to Kṣetrapāla, the chief of the Bhairavas.
(Source: archive.org: Trisastisalakapurusacaritra)
3) The Lower and middle worlds: Lakṣmī (लक्ष्मी, “wealth”) is the name of a deity residing in the lotus (puṣkara) in the middle of the Puṇḍarīka lake, which lies on top of the Śikharī (Śikharin) mountain. This mountain is situated in Jambūdvīpa: the first continent of the Madhya-loka (middle-word), according to the 2nd-century Tattvārthasūtra 3.10.
Jambūdvīpa (where Lakṣmī resides) is in the centre of all continents and oceans; all continents and oceans are concentric circles with Jambūdvīpa in the centre. Like the navel is in the centre of the body, Jambūdvīpa is in the centre of all continents and oceans. Sumeru Mount is in the centre of Jambūdvīpa. It is also called Mount Sudarśana.
(Source: The University of Sydney: A study of the Twelve Reflections)
4) Lakṣmī (लक्ष्मी) refers to “prosperity”, according to the 11th century Jñānārṇava, a treatise on Jain Yoga in roughly 2200 Sanskrit verses composed by Śubhacandra.—Accordingly, “And, having obtained the good fortune [com.—or prosperity (lakṣmīṃ) whose splendour is heavenly (devaśobhāṃ)] of heaven, [those corporeal beings] enjoy heavenly pleasure in the lower heavens and in the celestial vehicles or among other groups [of gods]. They fall from that place [and] immediately they enter the Rasātala hell. They roam about the whole world like the wind [and] they fall down into the Naraka hell”.
(Source: The Journal of the Anthropological Society of Bombay, Volume 7)
Feature Image Credit: wikipedia.org
Tirtha Yatra & Conference On Jain Traditions
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