Abstract
Jainism is one of the oldest non-theistic religions in the world. The historical penetration of Jainism into Peninsular India before the Common Era is a fact. Jainism is believed to have spread into Kerala, as per the legendary accounts, in the 3rd century BCE, soon after Chandragupta Maurya came to Shravanabelagola. The Jaina monks who accompanied him are said to have moved further south, into present-day Kerala and Tamil regions, searching for suitable places for their meditation and the propagation of their faith. Jainism seems well established in Kerala by the end of the Pre-Common Era. The Cheras were the native rulers of Kerala. Asokan edicts called them Keralaputras (Ketalaputo). Studies on the ancient Cheras up to the first half of the 20th Century relied entirely on the literary shreds of evidence in the form of Tamil Sangam and allied pieces of literature such as Pathitruppathu, Akananuru, Purananuru, Pattupattu, Manimekalai, Silappadikaram, etc. The Pathitruppathu text, which deals exclusively with the ten Chera kings who ruled over the regions of present-day Kerala and contiguous parts of present-day Tamil Nadu, was considered the principal source material for these studies. In this light, the present paper, based mainly on local and non-local inscriptional evidence corroborated with the literary evidence, has a significant bearing on the ancient Chera history in general and their Jaina affiliation in particular.
The spread of heterodox religions like Jainism and Buddhism from the mid-Gangetic valley to Kerala over the centuries and across different geographies involved various socio-economic, political, and artistic processes. Despite the empirical and conceptual breakthrough achieved in the historiography of Kerala during the last quarter of a century, the contributions of the Jains to the formation of society and culture in Kerala have yet to be adequately highlighted and integrated into the mainstream of Kerala historical studies. While the emphasis was given mainly on Brahmin settlements and the temple-oriented socio-cultural systems, the history of the Jains and the Buddhists was relegated to the level of appendices to the mainstream of Kerala history and culture. This brief article proposes to place select epigraphical evidence from the Jain vestiges in Kerala against the background of the medieval history of Kerala as a prelude to an understanding of the socioeconomic dimensions of the spread of the heterodox Jain religio-cultural groups to Kerala.
Introduction
Jainism is a very ancient religion. As per some traditions, it is as old as the Vedic religion. The Jain tradition has a succession of great teachers or Tirthankaras. There were 24 Tirthankaras, the last of whom was Vardhaman Mahavira. The first Tirthankara is believed to be Rishabhanath or Rishabhadev. The 23rd Tirthankara was Parshvanatha, who was born in Varanasi. He may have lived in the 8th or 7th century BC. All the Tirthankaras were Kshatriyas by birth. Vedic religion had become highly ritualistic. Jainism was taught in Pali and Prakrit and thus was more accessible to the commoner than Sanskrit. It was accessible to people of all castes. Varna’s system had rigidified, and people of the lower castes led miserable lives. Jainism offered them an honourable place. The Vedic culture was very rigid. The people needed help understanding the strict nature of the Vedic religion. Central to the moral code of Jainism is the doctrine of ahimsa—noninjury to all living beings, an idea that may have arisen in reaction to the Vedic sacrifice ritual. The three ethical pillars of the Jainism religion, Ahimsa (non-violence), Aparigraha (non-attachment), and Anekantwad (non-absolutism), are paramount in the goal of Jain followers to free their souls from samara. Jainism paved the right path for humanity to create a healthy society, which worked alongside their philosophy of non-violence and peace. Mahavir’s preaching for the removal and his opposition to the varna system and the unfairness towards people of different varnas made drastic changes to society. Jainism dates back to the age of Vedic religion. The Jain culture developed through different cultures and regions. Mahavira established an organisation of his disciples, which included both men and women, to disseminate the teachings of Jainism. Mahavira acted as a volunteer for the spread of Jain culture. Jainas used the Pali and Prakrit languages to communicate their doctrines and ideologies and, thus, were more accessible to the masses than the Brahmana-favored Sanskrit language. In early ages, Sanskrit was the language for medium. But not every person could use this language. Here, the Jain tradition introduced Prakrit and Pali for communication. Jainism believes in Karma and that the body is different from the soul. Mahavira communicated that individuals are punished or rewarded according to their karma. Also, the body of a human being dies, but the soul exists. Mahavira stressed equality, but he never firmly rejected the varna system. He always preached non-violence or ahimsa. He strictly believed in it.
Right faith: The right faith leads an individual to calmness, kindness, and the renunciation of the pride of wealth, beauty, powers, birth, and fame.
Proper knowledge: Right conduct with the right expertise is considered worthwhile. It is vital to distinguish between the self and non-self clearly.
Proper conduct: Right conduct leads an individual on the path of ahimsa, satya, asteya, parigraha, and brahmacharya. Jains were against the digging and ploughing of the land. To keep their belief, they did not plough or dig the land.
The time bracket taken up for the present inquiry is from the 8th century A.D. to the 16th century A.D. While the first half of this period witnessed the rise and decline of the second Chera kingdom, the latter half saw the emergence of a feudalised and fragmented polity in Kerala. The vestiges of the Jain presence that are still extant in Kerala have been dated to this time bracket, and they include the structural remains of Jain Pallis, the Vatteluttu inscriptions recovered from the Pallis and the adjacent areas, the Jain images, etc. In addition, there are references to Jain monastic centres in Silappathikaram and the Manipravala Kavyas of the medieval period. The eight or nine centuries period may seem too unwieldy, but the sparse distribution of the evidence in time and space justifies it. Since archaeological evidence on the gain settlements is scanty, the only reliable source is the corpus of a few inscriptions from the worship centres. The sectarian division into Digambara and Svetambara is insignificant since most of the sculptural remains have been attributed mainly on the iconographic basis, to the Digambaras. There has yet to be an agreement among scholars regarding identifying Tirukkunavay as Matilakam or Trikkanamatilakam, where archaeological excavations brought out the foundations of medieval temples, Chola coins, and other antiquities. Tirukkunavay was to the Jains of medieval Kerala what Tirumulikalam was to the Brahmin settlements. Proximity to the Chera capital, the warmth of royal patronage, and the flourishing trade at Makotai might account for the fame and importance of this centre. It may not be farfetched, however, to think that the model of Tirukkunavay, magnified in the inscriptions, contains aspects of exclusiveness and collusiveness on the part of the Jains as a religio-cultural group in medieval Kerala. The anxiety expressed in the inscriptions regarding violation or obstruction of the property of the Pallis also points to the growth of exclusiveness on the part of the Jains in the context of the anti-Jain and Buddhist content of the temple-centred Bhakti movement of the period.
Agam Sutras
The Agama sutras refer to a collection of sacred books on Jainism. The collection consists of twelve texts that contain Mahavira’s direct teachings. The twelve Agama sutras were compiled by Mahavira’s immediate disciples and were documented in the Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit language. They are said to be initially collected by the Ganadharas, the chief disciples of Mahavira. They can be broadly divided into two major categories: Canonical or religious texts called Jain Agamas or Agam and Non-canonical literary works. His followers methodically compiled his preaching into many texts. These texts are collectively known as Agams, the sacred books of the Jain religion. Hence, the Jain religion does not have one sacred book like the Bible or Koran, but many books compiled by many followers. This consists of original scriptures compiled by Gandharas and Srut-kevalis. They are written in the Prakrit language.
The Jain literature compiled by Ganadharas and Srut-kevalis is known as Agam literature. These texts are the holy scriptures of the Jain religion. The Agam Sutras revere all life forms and strict codes of vegetarianism, asceticism, nonviolence, and opposition to war. The existing Agam Sutras are accepted as the authentic preaching of Lord Mahavira by the Swetambar sects, but the Digambar sect does not get them as accurate. Digambars follow two primary texts (Shatkhand Agam and Kasay Pahud) and four Anuyogs (consisting of more than 20 texts) written by great Acharyas (scholars) from 100 to 800 A.D. There are some references to Jain communities in early and medieval textual sources. Their presence in Kerala society has been relatively established in early textual traditions, particularly from S̅ilappadika̅ram and Ma̟nimēkalai. There are descriptions of Jain centres in Vanchi (a place coterminous with present-day Kerala) in these texts as well.
Chandragupta Period
(Figure 1: Credit: Wikipedia – Jainimedu Jain temple, Palakkad)
Chandragupta was a great promoter of Jainism and sent many missionaries to different parts of the world. Among them, somebody came to Kerala and spread Jainism here. This is considered to be the first Jain migration to Kerala. Another group of Jains migrated to Kerala from Tamil Nadu around the 8th century. Many relics and studies prove the existence of Jainism in Kerala. The remaining Jain temples and Tirthankaras images have been found in different parts of Kerala. Though there were several Jain temples in the past, many were converted into Hindu temples. Nagaraja Swami Kshethram, situated in Nagarcovil, was a part of Travancore and is said to be a Jain temple. Six Jain idols have been found in this temple. Mahavira’s and Parsvanatha’s idols are still being kept in the temple. Palakkad was a critical Jain centre in the past. Chandraprabha Kshethram (Chandrapraha is the 8th Tirthankara) is a Jain temple. The place where the temple is situated is known as ‘Jain Medu.’ Presently, there is only one Jain family in Palakkad. Irinjalakuda Bharataswamy Kshethram is a Jain temple. Now, this temple is worshipped by Namboodiries. Bharath was the eldest son of Rishabha Deva, the first Tirthankara of Jains. The Kallil Baghavathy Kshethram at Muvattupuza is a Jain temple, which Hindus also worship. The idols of Mahavira and Parsvanatha are seen in these temples. Many other temples have also been converted into Hindu temples. Jains were one of the most civilised groups in Kerala. However, the invasion of Saiva and Vaishnava faiths declined the influence of Jains in the community. Many Jain kings were converted to these religions.
Jainism came to Kerala in the 3rd century BC. Chandragupta Maurya and Bhadrabahu introduced Jainism in South India. Even though Chandragupta Maurya visited only Sravanabelgola, his followers visited different parts of south India. Their objective was to find peaceful places for meditation. Ilango Adikal, who wrote ‘Silappadikaram,’ was a Jain prince at Matilakam. At that time (Sangham age), Matilakam was a famous centre for Jain learning. There were several Jain temples and shrines in ancient Kerala. Few of them continue to exist even today as Hindu temples.
In Matilakam, there was a famous Jain shrine. Later, it became a Hindu temple. According to ‘Kokasandesam,’ the Brahmins never entered this temple as late as 1400 AD. The reason perhaps is it being a Jain temple. Kudalmanikkam temple at Irinjalakkuda, which is dedicated to Bharata, was a Jain temple. It was a Jain temple devoted to the Digambara saint Bharateswara. During the decline of Jainism, it was converted to a Hindu temple dedicated to Bharata. Kallil near Perumbavur has an old Jain shrine in a natural rock-cut cave. This shrine has images of Parsvanatha, Mahavira, and Padmavathi Devi. Today, this temple is worshipped by Hindus as a Bhagavathi temple. But Jains visit this shrine even today, assuming they are worshipping Jain Gods, not Hindu Gods. In the Edakkal cave, the Jain inscriptions of Kadambas and Hoysalas can be seen. The Bhagavathi temple was a Jain temple on the top of Edakkal Hill. An old Jain temple in complete ruins, with granite images of Mahavira and Parsvanatha, was discovered in Kavassery in Alathur.
Wayanad’s Abundant Jain Culture
(Figure 2: Jain Temple, Kidanganad)
Jainism found its way to Kerala through Karnataka. Historical records suggest that Jainism has been rooted in Kerala since the 8th century AD. The ripples of this migration can also be found in the wilderness of Wayanad. Wayanad’s divine home consists of rock-cut temples, Jain bastis, and other ancient structures. This is the land of Jain temples that indicate a rich culture, agricultural revolutions, and Pazhassi revolts. The Jain migration marked a new phase in Wayanad’s agricultural history. The Jains reached Wayanad through the banks of the Kabani River. From here, the Jains in many groups moved to different parts of the district. They primarily reside in Mananthavady, Panamaram, Kanyampata, Kalpetta, Venniyoor, Varadoor, and Anchukunnu. The known historical facts about this land begin with the antiquity of the ancient Thirunelli temple. The rock-cut temples and Jain Bastis of Wayanad are textbooks for history enthusiasts. Sultan Bathery, Varadoor, and Puliyarmala are the most important Jain temples. These centuries-old temples bear witness to the land’s rich cultural legacy. The pillars that the architects sculpted, as well as the beams and slabs that were erected on them, still stand tall in the historical remnants. The Jain temple at Bathery, which is architecturally outstanding, is one of the most important medieval Jain settlements. This temple was known as Kidanganad Basti back in the olden days. It is built in the Vijayanagara style. Even the name ‘Sultan Bathery’ indicates the importance of this temple. Ganapati Vattam was renamed Sultan Bathery with the arrival of Tippu Sultan. History says that Tipu Sultan captured this temple and used it as an armoury. Historians say the temple experienced some deterioration in the ancient era. The scattered parts of this temple are still found here. Jain bastis dates back to the period when Jain devotees migrated to Wayanad. According to historical accounts, the believers established a base here initially. At the western end of Bathery Angadi sits this temple, which is covered with several enormous stone slabs. Many of the Jain temples in Wayanad have deteriorated considerably over the years. A handful of remnants are preserved for posterity. The Department of Archaeology is currently in charge of the Bathery Jain temple. According to these accounts, these temples were constructed between the twelfth and fifteenth centuries. Treasure hunters and sociopaths have destroyed the door and the Mukha Mandapa. It was first looked after by the Madras Circle Archaeology Department, although in a similar way. The Jains constructed this temple in the fourteenth century. This monument chronicles their migration to Wayanad. The major draw was the Vijayanagara-inspired sculptures and buildings. The primary structures in this temple are Mukha Mandapam, Garbhagraha, Armamandapam, and Mahamandapam. Earlier, the Mukha mandapam and gateways were demolished. The area supported by the remaining stone pillars is now in danger of collapsing.
Between the Ghats and the Arabian Sea, Malabar covers the geographical area north of the Bharathappuzha, stretching over parts of Kozhikkode, Kannur, Wayanad, and Kasargod districts of Kerala. The land was under the Cheras until their fall in the 12th century. Jains are the first group to start social life in Wayanad. Centuries ago, they migrated and started living together. The older name of Sultan Bathery was ‘Hennaredu Bedhi,’ which means ‘twelve streets.’ This is a Kannada name, and the migrated Jains were from Karnataka. History and the name ‘Hennerdu Bedhi’ tell us that there were twelve well-organized streets, and it was the main centre of Jains. Thus, Jains paved the way for the social life in Wayanad.
Jain Heritage
(Figure 3: Credit: Widipedia: Visnugudi Basadi Jain Temple, Panamaram)
Some of the older Jain temples were converted into Bhagwati temples. The 9th-century Chitharal complex in the Kanyakumari district in Tamil Nadu has one rock-cut Jain temple with outer wall reliefs and a Bhagawati temple next to it. The Hindu temple combines rock-cut and stone, built as the complex was expanded. The 15th-century Jainimedu Jain temple, close to Palakkad, was created by a family of diamond merchants. Jainimedu was, at one time, home to more than 400 Jain families. After years of neglect, the temple was renovated in 2013 and is fully functional. Jains also built temples in other parts of Kerala, such as Sultan Bathery in the Wayanad district. Made in the Vijayanagara style in the 13th century, the temple was occupied by Tipu Sultan’s army in the 18th century and converted into an arms and ammunition base. It is now a protected heritage monument under the care of Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). The more construction activity in Kerala, the greater the chance of Jain statues, inscriptions, and remnants of temples being discovered. It’s essential to maintain the state’s Jain heritage sites and look deeper into the community’s role in forging the destiny of Kerala. One of their most significant contributions to ancient Kerala was popularising elementary education in the countryside, where Jain monks did the heavy lifting. The Jain migration marked a new phase in Wayanad’s agricultural history. The Jains reached Wayanad through the banks of the Kabani River. From here, the Jains in many groups moved to different parts of the district. They primarily reside in Mananthavady, Panamaram, Kanyampata, Kalpetta, Venniyoor, Varadoor, and Anchukunnu. The ancient stone temples of Punchavayal are just a stone’s throw away from Panamaram. Vastu artists sculpted the pillars; the enormous beams and slabs piled on them are historical artefacts. Janardhanagudi and Vishnugudi will amaze anyone. The Archaeological Survey of India has been making headway in acquiring them as National Monuments for a very long period. It is believed that they were built in the 12th and 14th centuries. It is believed that the Hoysala rulers who dominated Karnataka began building these stone temples. However, it’s also believed that traders who came to the area in the past to trade coral and pearls erected these granite temples. Next to Thirunelli temple lies the Kudhikode stone temple. The exact age of the building is a mystery.
According to the ancient history of Wayanad, the Jains were the first group to migrate to Wayanad in Kerala. The Kannada-speaking people in Wayanad are Jains who belong to the Digambara sect and are called ‘Gowadas.’ Hoysala kings were the rulers of Karnataka in the 12th century, and Wayanad was a part of Karnataka. At that time, Wayanad was known as ‘Bailnad’. The rulers of the Hoysala Dynasty were Jains till King Vishnuvardhana.
Thus, we can identify three branches of ancient Chera rulers such as those of the ‘Athan’ line ruled from Vanji near Kodungallur, the ‘Irumporai’ line from Karur near Coimbatore, and the ‘Athiyaman’ line from Tagadur near Dharmapuri (sometimes shifted to Tagadur near Nanjangud). The earliest branch of the Cheras must be the Athan line, mentioned in the first seven decades of Pathitruppathu. Most kings attached their names to the ‘Athan,’ like Udayan Cheral Athan, Neduncheral Athan, Adu Kottu Pattu Cheral Athan, and Selvakkadunko Valiya Athan. Selvakkadunko Valiya Athan was also known as ‘Athan’ Chel ‘Irumporai’. From this ruler onwards, the Irumporai line possibly begins. He was the husband of the younger sister of the wife of Neduncheralathan of Athan line [Sreedhara1998: 78]. The Athiyaman line also might have emerged during this period. They fought wars against the Irumporai rulers for territorial dominance in the Coimbatore-Selam region. The continuity of the ancient Athan line was interposed for some unknown reasons. The ‘Yavanika’ of Elini, which is supposed to be a title, deserves discussion.
Some Jain shrines from early historical and medieval times remain, notably in Jainamedu, near Vadakkanthara, Palghat, and in Sultan Bathery in Wayanad. Koodalmanikyam Temple in Irinjalakuda is believed to have been a Jain temple. The assumption is that it was dedicated to Bharateswara, a digambara Jain monk. Some Jain temples located in modern-day Kerala are: Anantnath Swami Temple (Puliyarmala Jain Temple) in Puliyarmala, outside Kalpetta; Jain Temple, Kidanganad, Wayanad; Jainimedu Jain Temple; Kattil Madam Temple; Jain temple, Alappuzha; Kallil Temple in Perumbavoor; Kochi Jain temple, Mattancherry; Shri Vasupujya Swami Jain Temple, Srinivasa Mallan Road, Kochi; Cochin Digambar Jain Mandir, Panampilly Nagar, Kochi; Chathurmukha Basati, Manjeshwar; and Parswanatha Basati, Manjeshwar. There is much evidence that shows the existence of Jainism in Wayanad. History tells us that the Sultan Bathery Jain temple was built 800 years ago, in the 12th century AD. Earlier, this temple was known as ‘Kidangad Basti,’ and the older name of Bathery was ‘Hennaredu Bedhi’ (twelve streets where the Jains lived). These two words are Kannada words and show the Kamataka Jains’ influence in this area. Some other similar place names are Bennagode (Venniyode), Palagonthu (Palukunnu), Muthangadi (Puthangadi), and Hosengadi (Mananthavady). All these Kannada names are fool-proof evidence to show the existence of Jains in Wayanad.
It is believed that the wall inscriptions in Edakkal Caves (the oldest historical monument in Wayanad) are closely related to Jainism. The Swastik mark, the symbol of the 7th Tirthankar, Suparshwa Natha, has been engraved on the wall. The Chandrabimba, the symbol of the 8th Tirthankar Chandranatha, can also be seen on the cave wall. The other inscriptions on the wall are regarding the former Hoysala kings, who were Jains.
In fact, in the 13th century, Jainism was at its peak in Wayanad. By the end of the 18th century, the religion became too weak because of the increasing influence of the Hindu religion and the invasion of the Saiva-Vaishnava religions. In this period, many Jain temples were destroyed, and Hindus possessed some of them. The relics of these ruined temples can be seen in Bathery, Puthangadi, and Poothadi. Wayanad is currently considered one of the critical Jain centres, though in ruins. Now, the Jain population in Wayanad is 1581. Among them, 797 are male and 784 are female. The main Jain centres in Wayanad district are Mananthavady, Panamaram, Anjukunnu, Varadoor, Kalpetta, and Kaniyambatta.
References
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- Jainamataṃ Kēraḷattil: caritr̲aṃ. India, Sāhityapr̲avarttaka Sahakaraṇasaṅghaṃ, 2013.
- Dr. S Santhosh, Jain Sancharangal, Chinta Publications, 2013.
- S Shankar, Medieval Jain Traditions in Kerala, Current Publishers, 2015
- Dhiraj, M. S. History of Jainism in Kerala. India, Sharada Publishing House, 2021
Feature Image Credit: wikipedia.org
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