Jain Concept of Tirth and significance of Shri Parvat (Shrishailam) in Jain literature

Section I

1. Concept of Tirth and its meaning

The concept of tirth occupies special space in all Indian Dharmic traditions. The difference lies in the different origins of this term and different meanings assigned to it in accordance with respective philosophical foundations. In general in the Indian context the term tirth is referred to a sacred place associated with one or more deities or an event which has occurred in that place associated with that deity and revered with devotion by the deity’s followers. Sometimes some places are considered sacred from a spiritual as well as ritualistic point of view due to their importance portrayed in ancient literature. With this context it becomes important to explore the philosophical foundation of usage of the term tirtha in Jainism by examining early Jain literature.

In Bhagwati Sutra we get conversation between Bhagwan Mahaveer and his disciple Ganadhar Gautam with regard to the meaning of term Tirth wherein Bhagwan Mahaveer clearly states that the fourfold congregation of Sadhus, Sadhvis, Shravaks and Shravikas constitute tirth. (Bhagwati Sutra Shatak 20, Udeshak 8).

In Bruhat Kalpa Bhashya, (6th C.E.) tirth is defined to mean Shrut Jnana (articulate knowledge or the scriptural knowledge) or the Pravachana (discourse of Tirthankara) which is referred as Dvadashanga (12 agamas or the principal canonical works). In Vishesh Avashyak Bhashya (6th C.E.) Pravachana is equated with Tirth. 1

In Jain philosophy, emphasis is laid on understanding multidimensional aspects of concepts and knowledge. This approach is understood as Nikshep in Jain technical terminology. In Vishesh Avashyak Bhashya, Acharya Jinabhadragani has explained the term ‘Tirth’ by following this approach of Nikshep. In Vishesh Avashyak Bhashya the term tirth is explained through four Nikshepas (perspective), the author’s explanation of Dravya Tirth, Bhava Tirth and Sthapna Tirth merits consideration in the present context. The author has dealt with this subject while explaining the term ‘Tirthankara’. The author begins with the general statement that Tirth is a medium as well as a mode for overcoming the insurmountable.

That which is limited to cleansing the external impurities and whose result is single dimensional or has limitations is referred to as Dravya Tirth. E.g. – river.2

Bhava Tirth is ‘Sangh’ the fourfold congregation consisting of Sadhus, Sadhvis, Shravaks and Shravikas (lay followers). In the discourse of Tirthankara ‘Sangh’ is referred to as Tirth which serves as a medium of overcoming the insurmountable in this material life. Of this fourfold Sangha the Sadhu is saviour (Tarak) and the modes are Jnana, Darshan and Charitra and insurmountable is this vast ocean of material life (sansar samudra).3

He further explains that Gyan, Darshan and Charitra are the fundamental attributes of Sangha; in other words Sangha is like a living icon of these great qualities. These qualities help the individual soul in overcoming the false knowledge, wrong philosophy and ill conduct which are responsible for his hindrance in the path of liberation or moksha. Therefore ‘Sangh’ is referred to as Bhava tirth.4 Since Arhat are the ones who establish this Bhava Tirth and illuminate it with qualities, they are referred to as Tirthankar.

With this brief idea of Dravya and Bhava Tirth , lets understand the concept of Sthapna Tirth which is the core idea behind the establishment of pilgrimage centres which are referred to as Tirth in common parlance. Sthapna nikshep is the thing which is a copy, statue or picture of the real thing or which is conventionally made to stand for this real thing.5 So the places which due to their importance are designated as Tirth are called Sthapna Tirth. The idea behind establishment of Sthapna Tirth ( temples and idols) is the necessity to symbolise the discourse of Tirthankaras to ensure perpetual succession of the concept of Bhava Tirth among the masses. Since Tirthankaras and Siddhas are accorded the highest position in Jainism, the places associated with them were preferred for Sthapna Tirth. E.g. Nirvan places of Arhats like Pavapuri, Sammet Shikar.

2. Forms of Tirths

In ancient Jain canonical texts and in early commentaries of the same (of Mauryan period till 6th C.E.), we can find reference to various Tirths and their background. In Jambudweep Prajnapti (Gatha 3/57, 59, 62), there is reference to construction of a stupa at the place of Nirvana of 1st Arhat RishabhDeva at Ashtapad. In the Nishith Churni it is clearly stated that the Kalyanak Bhumi’s of Arhats must be visited by lay followers as it strengthens the individual’s belief system in the right direction. In the Niryuktis composed by Acharya Bhadrabahu there is reference to various Kalyanak Bhumis like Ashtapad, Ujjayantgiri, Ahichattra, Champa etc.  Broadly, we can classify the ancient Tirths under three categories.

i. Kalyanak Tirth: These include places of birth, renunciation , attainment of Kevaljnana, Nirvana of Tirthankars. E.g. Champa, Ayodhya, Varanasi, Kaushambi, Pava, Rujavalika, Girnar.

ii. Siddhakshetra Tirth: These are associated with places of Nirvana of sadhus & sadhvis who had attained Kevaljnana. They are referred to as Siddhas and their Nirvana place as Siddhakshetra. They are equally revered with Tirthankaras. Examples of Siddhakshetras are Palitana, Abu, Shri Parvat, Mathura, Kadambgiri, Rajgruhi, Pavagadh, Mangitungi, Rishabhadri etc.

iii. Other Tirths : Some tirths occupy a special place in Jainism due to their historical background, artistic marvels, miracles etc. These can be classified as Tirth because of their importance and reverence by the community as they also serve as popular symbolism of Bhava Tirth, Examples include but are not limited to Ranakpur, Jaisalmer, Nakoda, Taranga, Badami, Shravanabelgola, Kulpak, Udaygiri, Kangra, Shankeshwar etc.

In present times, Tirths under this category outnumber the rest of two categories.

3. Antiquity of Image Worship

Acceptability of image worship is undisputed in Jaina literature. It’s only in 16th C.E some sects emerged disputing idol worship under the influence of iconoclastic religions. Dr. U.P. Shah in his magnum opus ‘Jaina Rupa Mandana ‘ has dealt with this topic, in depth and suggested that, idol worship did prevail in Shramana tradition even during Mahavira’s times.6 

Canonical texts like Rajprashniya Sutra, Jambudwip Prajnapti, Jnatadharmakathang,  Saravalli Prakirnak, Jivabhigamsutra, Upasakdashangsutra, Thanang sutra, Samvayang Sutra etc have ample reference to Jinalayas and Jinpooja. Narrative texts like Paumcharium and Vasudevhindi which are compositions of before 500 C.E. have various descriptions of image worship. Avashyak Niryukti gives a note that Bhagwan Kunthunath’s mother had seen a beautiful stupa in her dream. Dr. B.B. Lal had discovered a terracotta image of Tirthankar during his 1976 Ayodhya excavation which he attributed to 4th B.C.E. Excavations in Mathura7 and Vaddamanu have revealed many artefacts of Jain stupas which are dated before Christ. Kharvel’s inscription of 1st B.C.E is again a historical account of the prevalence of idol worship during the Nandas. There is a popular narrative of Jivit Swami pratima of Mahaveera8 in commentaries of agamas and its rediscovery during Acharya Hemchandra’s times. Even today there are replicas of such idols in Osian, Shirohi and Akota which were consecrated between 6th to 11th C.E. There is a record of a temple in Ujjain which was known as Jivant swami temple and was visited by Acharya Suhastisuri who was preceptor of Mauryan  Emperor Samprati (Parishisht Parv 10/128). In South India some Jinalays were accorded the status of Patta Jinalaya by the ruling dynasties since the times of early Gangas and Kadambas and this practice continued till the period of Chalukyas of Kalyan. These are some of the illustrations to portray acceptance of image worship in Jainism since ancient times.

Section II

Shri Parvat (Shrishail) Jain Tirth

The study of History of Jainism in South India occupies an important place in the study of history of South India as a whole. The existence of Jainism in Andhra Pradesh as a prominent religion during the Mauryan period is confirmed from the most important commentaries on Ched Sutras of Jaina canonical literature and archaeological excavations in the Krishna valley. With this background I have traced references of an important Jain holy place in Andhra Pradesh – Shri Parvat (modern Shrishailam) located in the Kurnool district. The literary references range from 1st century A.D till 14th century A.D., covering a period of 1400 years. These are presented here to showcase the significance this place had for Jains since an early period. At the end I have discussed an inscription of 16th century A.D relating to the followers of Swetambar Sect of Jainism, found in the Mallikarjuna Temple at Shrishailam.

1. Paum Charium

Paum Chariuam (Padma Charitra) is the earliest literary work on life Padma (Rama)  written by Acharya Vimalsuri of Nailavamsha in 1st C.E.

In the story of Anjanasundari it is said that when Hanuman was a child, he fell down on the hill from a Vimana faring in the sky and the peak of the hill was crushed to pieces, so he was named Shrishaila. Thus the reference is to the Shrishaila or Shri Parvat because it is further said of Siripura was situated on Shri Parvat (85.26) which was under the rule of Hanumat. Also there is reference in the text that people of Shri Parvat hills became allies of Rama (Padma) and fought against Ravana. This is one of the earliest literary work in Jain literature referring  to Shri Parvat

2. Vasudevahindi

This Prakrit text was written by Acharya Sanghadasgani in 4th-5th Cent. A.D. In this work, we have two different references to Shri Parvat both associated with Jain monks. A poor woman named Shridutta once visited Shri Parvat and paid homage to Sarwayash Muni who in turn gave her sermons on Dharma. Inspired by the sermons she performed the Dharmchakrawal Tapashya which involved fasting for 40 days. In another instance, two sisters named Kanakashri and Dhanashri visited Shri Parvat where they saw Muni Nandangiri and paid their respects to him. Muni gave them sermons on the true form of Dharma and both the sisters agreed to follow the same4.

In this way we see that Shri Parvat was a place regularly visited by Monks for practicing their authority and the general public visited to pay their respects to them.

3. Varang Charit

Varang Charit has the honour of being the first Sanskrit Mahakavya of Jain literature. It was written by Acharya Jatasimhanandi of Kranur Gana and Yapaniya sangha5 in the 7th century A.D.

In this work, we are told that on the Shri Parvat, Sri Muni performed rigorous penance for 1000 years.

श्री पर्वते श्री: किल संचकार तपो महद्वर्षसहस्त्र मुग्रम् ( Varang Charit 25.57)

4. Cauppannamahapurisacariam

This Prakrit work on 54 illustrious personalities of Jainism was composed by Acharya Silanka of Nivrutikula of Swetambar Sangha in 9th century A.D.6 In the biography of Sagar Chakravarti, we have reference of Shri Parvata. The sons of Sagar during their excursion meet a Jain monk on Shri Parvata, who on their request narrate the reason of his renunciation which includes narrations of his previous births too7. At the end of the narration, we are told that Muni Rushabhasen had attained Kevalajnana and Sidhagati8 on Shri Parvat and because of this, Shri Parvat is also known as Siddhawada. Through this narrative, Shri Parvat is portrayed as a Sidhakshetra where Shramana Monks practiced their religious austerities.

5. Harivansha Puran

It is authored  by Acharya Jinasena of Punnata sangha in 8th Cent. A.D. in Sanskrit language. At the end of his work, the author has compared his Harivansa Puran with Shri Parvat9.

व्युत्सृष्टापरसंघसंततिबृहत्पुन्नाटसंघान्वये
व्याप्त: श्रीजिनसेनसूरिकविना लाभाय बोधे: पुन:।
दृष्टोऽयं हरिवंशपुण्यचरितश्रीपर्वत: सर्वतो
व्याप्ताशामुखमण्डल: स्थिरतर: स्थेयात् पृथिव्यां चिरम्॥५४॥

This comparison is very significant. This indicates the importance of Shri Parvat as a holy place for Jains during Acharya Jinasen’s period. 

 6. Trisastisalaka Purusacaritra

This work in Sanskrit language on the lives of 63 illustrious personalities of Jaina faith was written by Kalikal Sarvajna Acharya Hemachandrasuri of Shwetambar Sangh in 12th Cent. A.D. In order to glorify the holy Shri Parvata it is said that this mountain resembled the mountain of gods (Meru) in beauty10. In this narrative Sridatta meets a great muni named Satyayasas on Shri Parvat.

7. Akhyanakamanikosa

This work in Prakrit language is devoted to Dharmakathas and was composed by Acharya Nemichandrasuri (1073-1083 A.D) and commentary was written by Acharya Amradevsuri in 1134 A.D. In the story of Naravikram we have a reference to Shri Parvat. Ghorashiva, a Mahavratika says that he came from Shri Parvata and was going to Jalandhara in Uttarapatha11.

8. Kaharayanakosa (Katharatnakosh)

Written in 1101 A.D by Acharya Devabhadrasuri, this work has twice mention of Shri Parvat. Firstly in Dhansadhukathanak (story no. 8) wherein it is said that a Jogi named Diwakara got the knowledge of ‘Khanyavidya’ from a monk who had attained the deep state of meditation. Second in the Bharatnrup Kathanak it is said that a Gutikasidha purusha named Anantketu used to reside on Shri Parvat12.

9. Kalpapradeep (Vividhatirth Kalp)

Written in parts by the celebrated Acharya Jinaprabhasuri of Khartargacha order of Shwetambar Sangh in 14th century A.D., this work is devoted to description of various Jain tirthas spread across India, most of which the author had personally visited during his lifetime. Apart from detailed description and history of major Jain centres, Acharyashri has recorded the names of 84 Jain maha tirths of his time through a separate list. This list records the existence of Shri Parvata as a Jain centre with Lord Mallinath as the presiding deity and the temple of guardian deity Ghantakarna13.

10. Dharmamrita 

This important Kannada champu work was written in 1112 A.D by Nayasena. In this text, we are told how the mountain got its name in place of its existing name of Rishinivasa by way of a narrative.

Shri Parvat or Shrishaila which was originally known as Rishinivasa is said to have acquired the name on account of its association with Sridhara. When Sridhara was engaged in austerities under an Arjuna tree on the mountain, the heavenly angels paid homage to him with an offering of Mallika flowers; hence the place also came to be known as Mallikarjuna. In like manner Sridhara attained Siddhi under a Vata or banyan tree in another place and for this reason it was styled Siddhavata. The descendants of Sridhara were nicknamed Mundiya-Vamsa. Testimony of more than one epigraph is at our disposal to show that a part of the present day Nellore district was known as Munda Rashtra or Munda Nadu in the early centuries of the Christian era. Shri Parvata and Mallikarjuna represent the well known Shrisaila Mountain in the Kurnool District.14

11. Other Literary references

In Mahavircharitam by Acharya Gunabhadrasuri we have a similar reference to Shri Parvat as contained in Akhyanakamani Kosh. In Vajjalaggam by Muni Jayavallabh reference to medicinal plants of Shri Parvat is made.15

12. Shrishailam Epigraph

Now we reach the end of our literary references and notice with sorrow the tragic doom that extinguished the last remnants of the Jaina faith in the Andhra region. While recounting the pious achievements of a Virashaiva chief named Linga, son of Saanta, an inscription from Srisaila, dated A. D. 1512, tells us that he took pride in cutting off the heads of Shwetambar Jainas. No further details are forthcoming regarding the activities of this Linga against his opponents of the Jaina creed. Though this piece of information is meagre, it is full of significance when read in the context of the entire history of Jainism in the Andhra country. Firstly, it proves that Jainism had lingered on in the Andhra country, particularly in the region of Srisaila, in spite of overwhelming odds, till the period of the 16th century. Secondly, it testifies to the prevalence of the Shwetambar sect in that land. Thirdly, it shows the ruthless persecution by the followers of hostile creeds was prominent among the causes that led to the extinction of the Jaina faith in the Andhra Desha16.

In Velugotivarivamsavali, we have some further information about this Veerashaiva Chief Saanta Linga. Gani Timma was a subordinate of Krishnadevarayya of Vijayanagar Dynasty and an elaborate account of his deeds is given in this Vamsavali. The earliest of Timma’s deeds is his victory over Saanta Linga, as it had taken place during the days of Krishnadevarayya (1509A.D. -1529 A.D). Saanta was the pontiff of his separate matha in Shrishailam and exercised some temporal power as the manager of some of the properties of Mallikarjuna temple at Shrishailam. The exact cause of Gani Timma’s conflict with this pontiff are not known but his aggressive methods which he adopted in propagating his creed might have excited the anger of the enlightened emperor17. Especially the violence against the Jains on Shrishailam might have led Krishnadevarayya to initiate action against this pontiff and Timma who was commissioned to curb his activities loyally executed the royal command.

13. Analysis and conclusion

The above reference in the Jain literature indicates that Shri Parvat was  acknowledged as a Siddha Kshetra (these are places where monks or nuns who have attained Kevalajnana attain liberation, these are treated as holy pilgrimage centres. Shatrunjay, Girnar, Sammet Shikar, Abu, Mangitungi etc are some of the famous Siddha Kshetras in Jainism.) This fact is clear with specific references being made in Varang Charitra, Cauppannamahapurisacariam, Trisastitisalaka Purusacaritra and Dharmamrita. Further Ach. Jinaprabhasuri also confirms the existence of Jain temples on this hill. The references of Acharya Devabhadrasuri indicates that this place was famous for attaining various kinds of Vidya Siddhis by different types of Sadhakas. I need not comment much on the epigraph of Shrishailam after which no reference is found in Jain literature. Currently no Jain temple exists on the hill. Today this hill is famous for the Mallikarjunaswamy Hindu temple which is counted amongst the twelve Jyotrilingas.

To conclude, I strongly express the need for systematic archaeological excavations in this place which can shed further light on the connection of Jainism and Shrisailam in particular and Andhra Pradesh in general. Another important unanswered question remains before us regarding the people who were persecuted on this hill in the 16th Cent. Currently, we don’t have any proper source to trace the same but I would bring attention towards a possible source for studying the religious violence against the Jain community which is Kaifiyats compiled by Colin Mackenzie in 18th -19th Cent. together with non -Jain literature to arrive at better conclusions. In the Warangal Kaifiyats, Mackenzie has recorded various instances of violence against the Jains based on the oral tradition of masses.

References (Section I)

1. Jain Paribhashik Shabd Kosh, Page no.152
2. Vishesh Avashyak Bhasya , Gatha 1025
3. Ibid , Gatha 1029
4. Ibid , Gatha 1030
5. Page no.12, Tatvarthasutra English commentary  by Dr K.K.Dixit (1974)
6. Avashyak Niryukti of Bhadrabahu , Gatha 704/9
7. See The Jaina Stupa and other Antiquities of Mathura by Vincent A Smith (1901)
8. See  Ch ‘Origin of the Jina Image and the Jivantsvami  Pratima’ in Jaina Rupa  Mandana by Dr U.P .Shah (1987)

References( Section II)

1. In the Bruhat Kalpa Bhasya it is said that Samprati initiated activites to spread the Jain faith in the region of Andhra and Dravida Desha ( Gatha 3289). Reference of Jainism in Mauryan period is also contained in the commentaries of Nishith , Bruhatkalp, Vyavahara and Panchakalp.
2. Archaeological excavation at Vaddamanu village has revealed the existence of Jain stupa of Mauryan period. One of the label inscription in Brahmi script reads Samprati Vihara. For further studies see Vaddamanu Excavations ,Dr. TVG Shastri, Hyderabad, 1992 
3. K.R Chandra , A critical Study of Paimacariyam, Vaishali, 1970, P.516-517       Note: Also see following reference to Shri Parvata in Paumachariyam.

   संचुण्णिओ य सेलो, सहसा बालेण पडियभत्तेणं।

   तेणं चिय सिरिसेलो, नामं से कयं कुमारस्स॥ 18.49

   जे तस्स गया पणइं, सुहडी कइदीववासिणो बहवे।

   माहिन्द्र मलय तीरा, सिरिपव्वय हणुरुहाईया॥ 55.16

   सिरिपव्वयसिहरत्थं च सिरिपुरं मारुइस्स उद्दिट्ठं।

   पडिसूरस्स हणुरुहं, दिन्नं नीलस्स रिक्खपुरं॥ 85.26 

4. Vasudevhindi  Of Acharya Sanghadasagani, Hindi Tr. Dr. Ranjan Suridev, Beawar,1986, P. 1018 and 1023
5. For further studies on Acharya Jatasimhanandi and his Varang Charit see article of Rushabh R Bhandari in Anusandhan-82, Ahmedabad, 2020 p.57-65
6. For introduction of this text , refer Introduction to Silanka’s Cauppannamahapurisacariam by Klaus Bruhn in the text edited by Pt. A.M.Bhojak, Prakrit Text Society, Ahmedabad, 2006, P.1-31.
7. Cauppannamahapurisacariam , Hindi translation by Sadhvi Surekhashriji, Jaipur ,2020 P.112-129
8. Siddhigati is the condition of liberation. It is that in which there are no births, old age, death or fear, no miseries arising from undesirable accompaniments and from deprivation of desirable objects ,no animate feelings and diseases etc.
9. Harivanshpurana of Acharya Jinasena , edited & translated by Dr Pannalal Jain, New Delhi, 66.54, p.811
10. Trisastitisalaka Purusacaritra of Acharya Hemachandrasuri Vol III, Eng.TR. Helen M Johnson, Baroda, 1949, P 248-249
11. Akhyanakamanikosa of Acharya Nemichandrasuri, commentary by ach. Amradevsuri edited – Munishri Punyavijayji  Maharaj, intr. Dr. U.P.Shah  P..9, Ahmedabad 2005
12.  Kaharayanakosa of Acharya Devabhadrasuri edited.  Munishri Punyavijayji Mahraj , 1944 , Bhavnagar.
13.  Kalpapradeep ( Vividhatirth Kalp) of Acharya Jinprabhsuri ed. Muni  Jinvijay, Hindi Tr. Ranjan Suridev,P.320-321 Vaishali , 2012
14.   P.B Desai,  Jainism in South India & Some Epigraphs, p.3-6, Solapur (reprint) 2001
15.  Dr. J.C.Jain , Prakrit Sahitya ka Itihas , P. 469 & 492, Varanasi, 2014
16. P.B Desai,  Jainism in South India & Some Epigraphs, p.23-24, Solapur (reprint) 2001                                                                                                           Also see   Annual Report of the Govt. Epigraphist , Madras, 1914-15, P.58
17. Ed with intro. N Venkata Ramanayya, Velugotivarivamsavali, P.46, Madras,1939

Bibliography

1. Acharya Vimalsuri’s Paumacariyam I & II, with hindi tr., ed. Munishri Punyavijayji, Tr. Prof. Shantilal M Vora, Prakrit Text Society, Ahmedabad,2005
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3. Acharya Jatasimhanandi’s Varang Charit with Hindi Tr., ed. A.N.Upadhye tr. Kushalchand Gorawala, Bhartvarshiya Anekant Vidwat Parishad, 1996
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5.  Acharya Silanka’s Cauppannamahapurisacariam, Hindi Tr. Sadhvi Surekhashriji, Prakrit Bharti Academy, Jaipur,2020
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