Introduction
“Education is not preparation for life; education is life itself.” Swami Vivekananda
The idea of learning, unlearning and relearning comes with deliberation, discussion and debate in general and in academics in particular. India as a country is known for traditional pedagogical tools used in education from ancient times till date. Gurukulas, Pathshalas, Mathas, Agraharas, Viharas, and Mahaviharas are known to attract scholars across the globe in olden times where the teachers engaged in imparting the sublime truth along with other skills. The content and techniques were not just indigenous but provided enough food for intellectual debates for better understanding of life. For a considerable period of time, very lively and extensively practiced traditions of formal debates were held in places like Takshashila, Nalanda, Hampi, Sringeri, Varanasi to name a few in ancient India. These places attracted many scholars like Panini, the grammarian and others. In the south, especially three important kingdoms –Chera, Chola and Pandyan patronized education and educators. Early Tamil poems recorded were in praise of Gods & kings. The centers were Kanchipuram, Madurai and Tanjore. These debates were conducted, at times with royal patronage, to examine various religious, social, cultural, philosophical, moral and doctrinal issues. Even today such deliberations happen annually or during select festivals in few centres of learning. An analysis of scriptures, other classical texts and minor works kept young minds, scholars and householders busy. Today as we look back we do not get ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ answers but the reasons and evidence they provide to establish an argument proves their critical thinking and innovative thought process.
As per Mudaliar, “impact of Aryan was first on Indian education. Then the Buddhist influence took hold of education for a long time, followed by Islam”[i] Debates and discussions about ancient education often revolve around the methods, purposes, and effectiveness of educational systems in various civilizations throughout history. “The outstanding tradition of Indian education is to give the fullest scope of differences of opinion and to debate and discussion at which such differences were freely fought, thrashed out and solved.’[ii]says Radha Kumud Mookerjei. We could also see democracy of learning in historic times. Princes, merchants, tailors, poor students all rubbed shoulders as fellow disciples of a common tutor as well said in the Jatakas. The dissemination of knowledge was carried out orally as well as via written texts. Much of ancient Indian knowledge was transmitted orally through the guru-shishya (teacher-student) tradition. Debates consider the advantages and limitations of oral transmission compared to written texts in preserving and spreading knowledge.
The absence of widespread literacy led to debates about the reliance on oral traditions, apprenticeship models, and the role of written texts in preserving and transmitting knowledge. One of the key debates is centered around the effectiveness of the traditional Gurukul system versus formal schools. The Gurukul system involved students living with a teacher (guru) in an informal setting, while formal schools provided structured education. Debates often revolve around which approach was more effective in imparting knowledge and values.
We can broadly consider three types of educational institutions in the past . Firstly, the homes which also worked as schools where the householders taught pupils from far and near at one’s abode. We are reminded of SatyakamaJabala going to his preceptor’s home and living there to learn many things while tending his cattle. Secondly, debate circles or parishads- these were meant for those who had a great appetite to know more and discover the truth and knowledge. They were wanderers, engaged in discussion, formal or otherwise in search of literary celebrities and renowned scholars. Upanishadic outputs are the result of these discussions and dialogues. Thirdly, conferences were arranged at different places inviting scholars from distant places. King Janaka invited Brahmanas from Kuru-Pancala country. We also see courts of kings as centres of learning propagating and promoting knowledge sharing. Later it is noticed that the age of sutras that followed was an age of scientific study and specialization. Very many types of imparters of education got classified, namely Acharya, Upadhyaya, Guru and so on. Teachers were custodians of knowledge indeed. But the role of teachers in ancient education is another point of debate. Were teachers highly revered and respected, or did they face challenges and criticism? In some societies, teachers held a position of great honor, while in others, they might have been seen as mere transmitters of knowledge.
Ancient Indian education often emphasized the study of scriptures and philosophical texts. However, there’s debate about whether practical skills and vocational training were equally emphasized or undervalued. Some argue that the focus on philosophy limited the acquisition of practical knowledge. One of the major debates centres on the teaching methods and curriculum used in ancient educational systems. How were subjects taught? Was there a standardized curriculum, or did it vary widely between cultures? Some argue that ancient education was centered around memorization and rote learning, while others suggest that critical thinking and dialogue were also emphasized. Many ancient educational systems included elements of religious and moral instruction. Debates revolve around the extent to which religious beliefs and values shaped the curriculum and the ethical development of students.
Dialogues & debates in the past
“Raise your words not your voice ..It is rain that grows flowers not thunder.” Rumi
It is observed that Sanskrit was the language of learning in ancient India, used for scriptures and scholarly works. However, there’s deliberation about whether this language barrier hindered broader access to education. Some argue that promoting education in vernacular languages would have been more inclusive. The nature of the teacher-student relationship in ancient India is contested. Some view it as a deeply respectful and spiritual connection, while others point out instances where it might have been hierarchical and authoritative. We have enough narratives from epics to support. Conversation is a dialogue and not a monologue, hence wise men meet at regular intervals to have meaningful conversation. While referring to debates and discussions in ancient India, we find that in the Indian traditions, including the Buddhist and Jain traditions, there were four formats described namely Samvada, Vaada, Jalpa and Vitanda. The merit and esteem of each of these types of discussions is graded in terms of the honesty of their purpose, the quality of debate, the decorum and the mutual regard of the participants. Of these four forms of discussions, Samvada is regarded as the noblest type of dialogue that takes place, in all earnestness, between an ardent seeker of truth and an enlightened teacher. Shiv Shakti samvaad is a popular one and later their conversation was shared to all species.
Most of the ancient Indian texts are in this format. In samvaad there is mutual respect, understanding and readiness to listen. It is considered as a discourse or imparting of teaching, while the other three – Vaada, Jalpa and Vitanda – are clever and structured (Tantra–yukthi) debates and arguments between opponents.
According to Dr. Benimadhab Barua, even among the Sramanas, the wandering monks, there were famed debaters who were “clever, subtle, and experienced in projecting controversies; hair-splitters who ruthlessly splintered into pieces the arguments of their adversaries”. The history of the Buddhist system of education is about sangha. It all happened in monasteries. Only after the advent of Europeans in general and British in particular modern ways of imparting education through schools & colleges were considered.
Samvaada is a dialogue that takes place between any two individuals, like between the teacher and the taught. All Upanishadic teaching and other puranic work are in the form of samvaad between, father & son like Uddalaka-Swetaketu , husband & wife – Shiva & Parvati, Yajnavalkya & Maitreyi, teacher & student and so on. The one who approaches the teacher could be a disciple; student or friend. For example Krishna-Arjuna or Krishna-Uddhava, or son & parent as Sage Kapila teaching his mother Devahuthi or anyone who is seeker of truth like Nachiketas asking pertinent questions on fire, death and son to to Yama the Lord of Death in Kathopanishad. What characterizes the Samvada in such cases is the sincerity and eagerness of the learner; the humility in his/her approach; the quest for knowledge and the absolute trust & faith in the teacher. The wise teacher, in turn, with full of grace, love & compassion, imparts instructions out of enormous affection for the ardent seeker of truth. Bhagavad Gita as a text pours wisdom for all those who seek earnestly. It suggests that an ardent seeker of truth should approach a learned teacher in humility and seek instructions from him sincerely. Krishna says that one must question and counter question in order to get clarity repeatedly: To Arjuna he says…
तद्विद्धि प्रणिपातेन परिप्रश्नेन सेवया |
उपदेक्ष्यन्ति ते ज्ञानं ज्ञानिनस्तत्त्वदर्शिन:
tadviddhi praṇipātena paripraśnena sevayā |
upadekṣyanti te jñānaṃ jñāninastattvadarśina: ||(B G.; Ch.4; 34)
Krishna says – try to aspire and learn truth by approaching a spiritual master. Go to him with humility, with an attitude of service . Question and counter question till your doubts are cleared, then he shall enlighten you as he has experienced Truth.
It is imperative to know the truth and it all the more necessary to get it from master. He with all compassion and affection shall reveal the secrets to the disciple. The questioning skill brings about the real quest and burning desire to know the reality.
Other pedagogical tools
‘In true dialogue both sides are willing to change’. NhatHanh
The student questions the teacher not because he doubts the wisdom or the competency of the teacher; nor is he / she questioning the authenticity of the teaching or the text. The questions are asked with an open mind and candid heart only meant to clear doubts, and to gain a flawless understanding of the teaching directly. The teacher is neither annoyed nor does he discourage the student from asking questions. On the contrary, he encourages the learner to examine, enquire and test the teaching handed down to him. The questioning method is a very powerful tool in philosophy .A true teacher, in a Samvada does not prescribe or proscribe. There is neither fear nor favour. He lets the student the freedom to think, to ponder over and to find out for himself the answers to his questions. Hence Krishna at the end of 18th chapter says – yathaicchasithathakuru– do as you wish! One has to own up the decision that we make. A student needs humility, persistence, integrity and honesty of purpose to go further and to arrive at his own understanding.
It is true that arguing just for the sake of it is not communication but noise. Apart from samvaada we also have vaada, jalpa and vidandavaada. While teachers and thinkers argued about matters on whether God exists? Is there soul? What is its nature ? So on, there arose a gradual awareness of the characteristics or patterns of correct, acceptable and sound reasoning. There were also concerns to evolve the norms to distinguish sound reasoning from pseudo-reasoning (hetvabhasa) which is unacceptable. The debates tended to get more passionate, animated and even noisy while dealing with few questions. Gradually, the notions of ‘good’ and acceptable debates took shape as distinct from wrong and ugly or nosy arguments. That gave rise to the development of a branch of study dealing with theories of reasoning and logic (Hetu-vidya or HetuSastra). Nyayadarsana has explored this exhaustively. It was perhaps around the fifth century BC that manuals came to be written for conduct of proper and successful debates (Tarkavidya or Vadavidya).
Accepting many ways of looking at arguments was not new at all. Agreeing and disagreeing implied the power of conviction. The earliest known text of that genre was Tantra-yukti (structured argument) compiled perhaps in the sixth-fifth century BCE to systematize debates conducted in learned councils (Parishad). Sanskrit parshad happen even today among scholars and budding researchers all over the globe.
Debates and arguments then came to be recognized both as art of logical reasoning and critical thinking (Tarka-vidya) and science of causes (Hetu-shastra) following the path of a well-disciplined method of inquiry (ânvikŝiki) testing scriptural knowledge by further scrutiny. Discussion, debate and arguments will be fruitful only if done with an open mind.
Nyaya as a Darshana in particular, denotes a method or a scheme of logic employed to prove or to disprove a proposition through proper evidence (pramana). It is a school of philosophy which explicates reason and logic. Clarity of thought is emphasized. The employment of a Nyaya would become necessary when the subject discussed is either vague or disputed; and when the other methods of reasoning were ineffective and fruitless.
It tried to examine the sources and contents of valid knowledge by building a logical link between the subject, the knower (pramata); the means or method of obtaining knowledge (pramana) and the object , the knowable (prameya) . In addition, it put forth analogy (Upama) as the fourth method. The main purpose of Upama is to illustrate. This model attempts to represent something that cannot be perceived. It is often said that the Nyaya is like the finger that shows the moon and, it is certainly not the moon. Therefore, the upama has its own limitations. An analogy cannot be perfect; as there cannot be complete identity between the subject and the object. Therefore, there cannot be a perfect analogy; and, mere argument is not evidence.
Unlike in Vada, the purpose of Jalpa is not so much as to ascertain the truth, as to establish one’s own position and to prove the opponent wrong and make him accept defeat. What is at stake here is the ‘prestige and honor’ of one’s school of thought. Therefore, each will try to win the debate by fair or foul means. Jalpa, predictably, could therefore be noisy, unpleasant and even be desperate to overpower the rival. And, Vitanda is the worst type of argument or bickering descending to the level of quarrel and trickery. It is described as a destructive type of argument; the sole aim of each party being not only to inflict defeat on the opponent but also to demolish, disrespect and humiliate others. A debate with the mere aim of winning or humiliating the other is looked down upon. Therefore, Jalpa and Vitanda are deemed contrary to the overall aim of the NyayaShastra which is oriented towards determination of the true nature of objects.
It is to be noted that one doesn’t win a debate by suppressing discussion, but one wins it with better argument. This is what we find in the scriptures where one argues and debates and puts forth points very forcefully only to convince the opponent too. Sankara, the Advaitic scholar established the logical nature of the philosophical thought of Nondualism defeating others only by putting strong points and not by insulting or taking revenge. Similarly the rishis in the Upanishadic tales established the truth very strongly during their various conversations. It is strange yet true that good dialogue illumines even what is not said. We are reminded of French writer Joseph Joubert’s words “It is better to debate a question without settling it than to settle a question without debating it “-
Practical skills & Pedagogy
“Books are the means by which we build bridges between cultures.” Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan.
Now as we reflect on a skill based and multidisciplinary approach we find that ancient India had a complex and multifaceted view of practical skills within its educational framework. The perspective on practical skills varied across time periods, regions, community and social contexts. It is also noticed it had a balanced approach between theoretical and practical knowledge. While scriptures, philosophy, and intellectual pursuits were highly valued, practical skills were also recognized as essential for holistic development while imparting of knowledge in any form was concerned. The ancient Indian texts, such as the ManuSmriti and ArthaSastra, recognized the importance of vocational skills. These skills were often classified into various categories, known as “shilpas,” which encompassed crafts, arts, and trades. The Manu Smriti, for example, lists various professions and crafts that were considered valuable for society. In addition to intellectual pursuits, ancient Indian education included training in the arts. The Gandharva Veda, a part of ancient Indian knowledge, covered music, dance, drama, and other performing arts. This demonstrated the value placed on artistic and creative practical skills.
Ancient India was known for its exquisite craftsmanship and artistry, evident in fields such as architecture, sculpture, metallurgy, pottery and textiles. Practical skills were crucial for creating intricate and aesthetically pleasing works that reflected the cultural and spiritual values of the society. Practical skills like farming, herbal medicine, and simple crafts were often emphasized. The Gurukul system of education in ancient India often involved experiential and hands-on learning. Students learned through direct observation, practice, and emulation under the guidance of their gurus. This approach encouraged the development of practical skills alongside theoretical knowledge. Practical skills were not disregarded; rather, they were integrated into the broader educational framework as essential components of a well-rounded education. Not all pupils seek the metaphysical truth but much eager to master skills and crafts. Even today we aim at holistic education and engage in tapping the potentials and acknowledge the weakness of the students and persuade them to make right choice. A well trained potter creates a space of excellence in his world or a farmer is an adept in knowing the nuances of seed selection, nature of soil and preparation for harvest, or a sculptor gauges the raw material – stone or marble from which a beautiful deity is chiselled out, just to name a few.
Debates, Dialogues and Dissuasions today
‘Debates and divergent views are indeed healthy and can certainly enrich our culture, history and philosophy’
No conclusive nor conducive solutions shall be outcome without dialogues and discussions. Decisions at local or global are made with mutual consent or accepting the differences of opinions. The Jaina concept of Anekantavada is one such example. With this approach major decisions at social and political can be amicably resolved. Right from schools and colleges debates are encouraged as a tool for learning and unlearning. One’s opinion or idea cannot be the end of a conversation. In the last few decades the role of media print visual or audio are emphasizing the need for debates and discussion. At times it may express vaada and vidanda yet they have been used as tools. In the world of democracy autocratic decisions and thrust ideas shall not work, it will lead to chaos and confusion. Competitions in academic circles encourage young minds to get ignited using these tools. Samvaada of all kinds is welcome to all for learning, understanding and comprehending.
Apart from teaching – learning, we also see academic engagements are best expressed in the participation in symposia, conferences, seminars and colloquiums. Research scholars, veterans, specialists in respective fields and young budding seekers of knowledge converge in such places to debate and discuss. The outcome of this has brought volumes of works and books to be preserved for posterity. Now digital versions of all knowledge systems are a boon. In the media today the anchor roars with the topic of debate and multiple people across varied backgrounds opine their views. The spectators are in millions and such talks / debates are stored in the media to be revisited again. Vidanda as mentioned in the ancient system still persists. Not all debates in public media are intellectually enticing. The agenda may be to win vote banks and the pleasure of being in the limelight however short the span may be. The observation is that human minds from ancient to modern with all its curiosity and quest driven, have been engaged in discussion and dialogue for growth and survival. It not only brings personal upliftment but social transformation too. Saints, sages, mystics and wandering scholars have imparted the pearls of wisdom by sharing it in public. When people gathered at various spots, they were made to engage in debates and discussions.
NEP and its way forward
“If you are not willing to learn, no one can help you. If you are determined to learn, no one can stop you.” ZigZiglar.
National educational policy itself is an outcome of decades of deliberations and discussions on the very structure and pedagogy of education from school to higher education. Looking at the need for restructuring of the universities and colleges towards radical reorganisation, one formidable step is NEP. Having implemented National Education Policy (NEP) , it can have a significant influence on learning skills, as it shapes the overall approach to education, curriculum, and pedagogical methods. The impact of an NEP on learning skills can be seen in various ways as we revisit the practical and pedagogical tools used by the men of yore.
The focus is not solely on academic skills but also on the development of life skills, problem-solving abilities, critical thinking, creativity, and emotional intelligence. The NEP aims to nurture a well-rounded individual capable of adapting to diverse challenges. Unlike the ancient educational system we look forward to structure within the autonomy. The NEP has introduced dynamic flexibility in the curriculum, allowing students to choose from a broader range of subjects and learning pathways. This promotes skill development in areas that align with students’ interests and strengths, fostering a deeper and more relevant learning experience.
Reflecting on the earliest educational system, NEP recognizes the importance of practical and vocational skills alongside academic knowledge. This can lead to the inclusion of vocational education, apprenticeships, and hands-on learning opportunities within the curriculum. Students are encouraged to acquire skills that have direct applicability in the workforce. It is a timeless understanding that critical thinking and problem-solving are essential in personal and professional life. These skills are essential for navigating an increasingly complex and dynamic world. Students are encouraged to analyse information, question assumptions, and find innovative solutions to real-world problems.
In the present world of technology and scientific temper integration of the same in education is a mandate. The NEP not only provides students with digital literacy skills but also enhances their ability to access information, collaborate globally, and adapt to technological changes. Assessment methods are reformed to align with the development of learning skills. Traditional rote memorization and high-stakes exams may be de-emphasized in favour of continuous assessment, project-based learning, and performance assessments that better evaluate a student’s problem-solving and analytical abilities. In India the policy promotes multilingualism as a means of enhancing communication skills. Proficiency in multiple languages is seen as a valuable skill in a globalized world. There are also provisions for teacher training and professional development. Educators are trained in modern pedagogical methods that emphasize skill development, active learning, and student engagement, in order to provide quality education.
Through research and innovation in education, it can lead to the development of new teaching methods, learning materials, and technologies that enhance learning skills. It shapes the education system’s goals, methods, and priorities to better equip students with the skills they need to succeed in an ever-changing world. What we see is a well-crafted NEP can foster a culture of lifelong learning and skill development, preparing individuals not just for exams but for the challenges of the future. As Amrik opines in his book on the challenge of education, -‘ Apart from the various other impediments which education faces today, both under governance and misgovernance come in the way of their performance. Once the process of decentralised things would start changing.’[iii]
Violence can take many forms. Intellectual and emotional violence are invisible forms of violence that are celebrated and boasted about in the academic institutions of the world in the name of seeking knowledge. We are obsessed with words like agreeing and disagreeing, and finding a voice through free speech and expression. In the process there is an attempt to control other people’s voices through political correctness. We yearn for power; the desire to win an argument at all times. Do we really care for knowledge? If we did, we would be calmer, quieter, more attentive, sensitive and always at peace. Socrates rightly said-‘Education is the kindling of a flame, not the filling of a vessel.’ Our minds once stretched to new ideas shall never get back to their original dimension. The emphasis then and today is the aspect of questioning. Let’s teach to question anything and everything with the underlying purpose of learning. We earn more from those with whom we do not agree. If all agree with everything there is stagnation and no growth. The vibrancy and vivacity come with powerful dialogue and discussions.
As we conclude it is observed that learning can be made available in varied packages. Some may choose self- learning, others group yet others through debates and discussions. As mind expands and grows, the methods, tools and pedagogy shall keep altering, improving as to suit the needs of people. There was a threat that a robot shall replace a teacher or chatGPT shall substitute works/ books. The uniqueness of human natural intelligence shall reign supreme as we are the creators of such. The new age tool is technology which gives voice even to the quietest child. As John Dewey the philosopher says “If we teach today as we taught yesterday, we rob our children of tomorrow.” Let us pledge that we shall continue to explore, educate and enlighten the self and the world to bring the inner light to illumine the world of beings.
Footnotes
i LakshmanaswamiMudaliar, Education in India, p9
ii RadhaKumudMookerji, Ancient Indian Education p 317
iii Amrik Singh, the Challenge of education, p 163
References
- Mookerji, RadhaKumud,Ancient Indian education , Motilal Banarasidas, NewDelhi, 1960
- Singh, Amrik, The Challenge of Education, ICFAI University of Press, Hyderabad, 2004
- Mudalitar, A. Lakshmanaswami, Education in India, Asis Publishing House, Bombay, 1969
- Bagchi, Barnita, (2014) Connected and entangled histories; writing histories of education in Indian context, Pedagogica Historica
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