Abstract
The paper begins by examining the historical context of the times in which Mahavira and Siddhartha Gautama, the respective founders of Jainism and Buddhism, lived. It explores the shared roots of these traditions in the socio-religious milieu of ancient India, marked by the search for spiritual truth and liberation from the cycle of birth and death. A significant aspect of the analysis involves the ethical and moral frameworks that Jainism and Buddhism introduced to Bharat’s cultural landscape. Both traditions advocate non-violence (ahimsa), compassion, and the pursuit of truth as guiding principles for righteous living. Therefore, this paper has explored the profound and interconnected contributions of Jainism and Buddhism to the rich tapestry of Bharat’s culture. Emerging in the 6th century BCE, these ancient philosophical and religious traditions have played pivotal roles in shaping the ethos, values, and social fabric of the Indian subcontinent. This study delves into the shared origins, fundamental principles, and symbiotic evolution of Jainism and Buddhism, highlighting their enduring impact on various aspects of Bharat’s cultural heritage. The paper searches how these ethical foundations influenced not only religious practices but also permeated into the broader societal norms, contributing to the development of a more compassionate and inclusive culture. Furthermore, the study has investigated the impact of Jain and Buddhist art, architecture, and literature on the aesthetic sensibilities of the subcontinent. From the intricately carved Jain temples to the serene Buddha statues, the artistic expressions of these traditions have left an indelible mark on the cultural heritage of Bharat. The paper also has explored how these artistic endeavors have served as a medium for spiritual expression and transcended religious boundaries to become integral components of a shared cultural identity.
1. Introduction
This research paper delves into the profound influence of Jainism and Buddhism on the cultural landscape of Bharat (India). Both Jainism and Buddhism emerged as significant philosophical and religious movements in ancient India, leaving an indelible mark on its society, culture, and intellectual thought. Through an exploration of their core teachings, ethical principles, socio-cultural impact, and contributions to Indian art, architecture, and literature, this paper aims to elucidate the integrated contributions of Jainism and Buddhism to Bharat’s rich cultural heritage.
Therefore, this paper has demonstrated that Jainism and Buddhism, while distinct in their theological doctrines, have woven a shared cultural fabric that has endured through centuries. Their integrated contributions have not only enriched Bharat’s religious landscape but have also profoundly influenced its ethical, artistic, and societal dimensions. Recognizing the interconnectedness of these traditions is essential for a holistic understanding of the cultural mosaic that defines Bharat.
2. Brief overview of Jainism and Buddhism
Jainism is an ancient religion that originated in India around the 6th century BCE. It is one of the oldest living religions in the world and shares some commonalities with Hinduism and Buddhism, but it also has distinct beliefs and practices[1].
Key Tenets and Beliefs
Ahimsa (Non-violence)
Ahimsa is one of the fundamental principles of Jainism. Jains believe in non-violence towards all living beings, and they strive to avoid harming any form of life, no matter how small[2].
Karma
Jainism teaches the concept of karma, which refers to the accumulation of good and bad deeds that affect an individual’s fate and future lives. Jains aim to live a life of virtue and righteousness to avoid negative karma.
Samsara (Cycle of Rebirth)
Similar to Hinduism and Buddhism, Jains believe in the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (samsara). They seek to break free from this cycle by attaining liberation (moksha) through spiritual purification.
Anekantavada (Non-absolutism)
Jainism emphasizes the principle of anekantavada, which teaches the acceptance of multiple perspectives and the recognition of the complexity of truth. This doctrine encourages tolerance, understanding, and respect for diverse viewpoints.
Asceticism and Renunciation
Jain monks and nuns practice extreme forms of asceticism, including vows of non-possession, celibacy, and minimalism. They renounce worldly attachments and dedicate their lives to spiritual pursuits[3].
Five Great Vows (Mahavratas)
Jainism prescribes five great vows for monks and nuns, which include non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, celibacy, and non-attachment.
The primary Jain scriptures are called the Agamas, which are believed to contain the teachings of Lord Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara (spiritual teacher) of Jainism[4].
Practices and Rituals
Meditation
Jains engage in various forms of meditation to cultivate inner peace, mindfulness, and spiritual growth.
Worship
Jains worship idols and images of the Tirthankaras and offer prayers and rituals in temples and shrines.
Fasting
Fasting is a common practice among Jains, particularly during religious festivals and observances.
Charity and Compassion
Jains emphasize acts of charity, compassion, and service to others as integral aspects of their spiritual path.
Overview of Buddhism
Buddhism emerged in ancient India around the 6th century BCE and was founded by Siddhartha Gautama, also known as the Buddha (the Enlightened One). It has since spread across Asia and become one of the world’s major religions[5].
Key Tenets and Beliefs
Four Noble Truths: The Four Noble Truths are central to Buddhism. They outline the nature of suffering (dukkha), its causes, its cessation, and the path to liberation from suffering (the Eightfold Path).
Noble Eightfold Path: This path consists of eight practices: right understanding, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. Following this path leads to the cessation of suffering and the attainment of enlightenment (nirvana).
Nirvana: Nirvana is the ultimate goal of Buddhism, representing the state of liberation from suffering, desire, and the cycle of birth and death. It is a state of profound peace, wisdom, and liberation[6].
Reincarnation and Karma: Like Jainism and Hinduism, Buddhism teaches the concepts of reincarnation (samsara) and karma. Individuals are reborn into new existences based on their karma, the law of cause and effect determined by their actions.
Middle Way: The Buddha taught the Middle Way, which advocates for moderation and avoiding extremes in all aspects of life, including spiritual practice and asceticism.
Sacred Texts
The primary scriptures of Buddhism are the Tripitaka (Pali Canon), which consist of three collections: the Vinaya Pitaka (rules for monastic life), the Sutta Pitaka (Buddha’s discourses), and the Abhidhamma Pitaka (philosophical and doctrinal analysis).
Practices and Rituals
Meditation: Meditation plays a crucial role in Buddhism, with various techniques aimed at developing mindfulness, concentration, and insight (vipassana).
Worship: Buddhists pay homage to the Buddha, his teachings (Dharma), and the community of practitioners (Sangha). They often offer prayers, chants, and rituals in temples and monasteries[7].
Offerings and Dana: Buddhists practice generosity (dana) by offering alms to monks and supporting temples and charitable causes.
Pilgrimage: Pilgrimage to sacred sites associated with the Buddha’s life and teachings is an important practice for many Buddhists.
Ethical Conduct: Buddhists adhere to ethical principles outlined in the Five Precepts, which include refraining from killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, false speech, and intoxicants.
Comparison
While Jainism and Buddhism share some similarities, such as their emphasis on non-violence, karma, and the pursuit of liberation, they also have distinct philosophical frameworks, practices, and historical contexts. Both religions have contributed significantly to the cultural and spiritual heritage of India and continue to inspire millions of followers around the world.
3. Significance of their emergence in ancient India
Buddhism and Jainism emerged as significant religious and philosophical movements in ancient India, both contributing significantly to the spiritual and cultural landscape of the region. Here’s a brief overview of their significance and emergence:
Buddhism
Founded by Siddhartha Gautama, later known as Buddha, in the 6th century BCE in present-day Nepal. Buddhism emphasizes the Four Noble Truths: the truth of suffering, the cause of suffering, the end of suffering, and the path to the end of suffering. It advocates the Middle Way, rejecting extreme asceticism as well as excessive indulgence. Buddhism spread rapidly across India and beyond, facilitated by the teachings of Buddha and the missionary efforts of his followers. It became one of the major religions of ancient India and exerted significant influence on Indian society, culture, and philosophy. Buddhist principles such as compassion, non-violence, and mindfulness continue to resonate globally and have inspired various forms of art, literature, and meditation practices[8].
Jainism
Founded by Mahavira, a contemporary of Buddha, in the 6th century BCE in the region that is now Bihar, India. Jainism emphasizes the concept of ahimsa (non-violence) as its central ethical principle, extending it not only to human beings but to all living beings. The Jain path to spiritual liberation involves strict adherence to non-violence, truthfulness, non-attachment, and asceticism. Jainism advocates for the importance of self-discipline, meditation, and detachment from material possessions. Despite being a minority religion in India, Jainism has had a profound impact on Indian culture, particularly in areas such as art, architecture, and vegetarianism. Jain philosophy, with its emphasis on non-violence and respect for all forms of life, continues to influence contemporary ethical and environmental movements[9].
Both Buddhism and Jainism emerged as alternatives to the ritualistic and hierarchical Brahmanical religion prevalent in ancient India. They challenged prevailing social norms and distinctions, offering paths to spiritual liberation accessible to people from all backgrounds. Their teachings continue to inspire millions worldwide, embodying profound ethical and philosophical principles that remain relevant in the modern era.
4. Importance of understanding and their contributions to Indian culture
Understanding Buddhism and Jainism is crucial for comprehending the rich tapestry of Indian culture and spirituality. Both of these ancient religions emerged in India around the 6th century BCE and have made significant contributions to the philosophical, ethical, and cultural landscape of the subcontinent[10].
Buddhism, founded by Siddhartha Gautama, known as the Buddha, emphasizes the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path as the means to achieve liberation from suffering (dukkha) and attain enlightenment (nirvana). It spread across India and beyond, influencing art, architecture, literature, and social structures. Buddhist teachings promoted non-violence (ahimsa), compassion, and the cultivation of wisdom through meditation. The spread of Buddhism along the Silk Road facilitated cultural exchanges between India and other civilizations[11].
Jainism, founded by Mahavira, emphasizes the principles of non-violence (ahimsa), truthfulness, non-possessiveness, and asceticism. Jains believe in the concept of karma and seek to attain liberation (moksha) through spiritual purification and self-discipline. Jainism has had a profound impact on Indian culture, particularly in the realms of vegetarianism, environmental conservation, and ethical conduct. Jain temples, with their intricate carvings and serene ambiance, are notable landmarks in India’s architectural heritage[12].
Both Buddhism and Jainism challenged the hegemony of Brahmanism and the jati system prevalent in ancient India. They advocated for social equality and rejected the notion of ritualistic exclusivity. Their teachings promoted universal compassion and the pursuit of inner peace, fostering a more inclusive and humane society[13]. Furthermore, Buddhism and Jainism have left an indelible mark on Indian literature, philosophy, and art. Their scriptures, such as the Tripitaka and the Jain Agamas, contain profound insights into the nature of existence and the path to spiritual liberation. Buddhist stupas, monasteries, and Jain rock-cut caves stand as testaments to the architectural brilliance inspired by these faiths.
In essence, the understanding of Buddhism and Jainism is vital for appreciating the diverse spiritual heritage of India and recognizing their enduring contributions to moral philosophy, social ethics, and cultural enrichment. Their teachings continue to resonate in the modern world, offering timeless wisdom for individuals seeking meaning and fulfillment in life.
Both Buddhism and Jainism are ancient Indian religions that emerged in the 6th century BCE and share some common philosophical foundations while also possessing distinct beliefs and practices. While, both Buddhism and Jainism share certain philosophical ideas such as karma and the quest for liberation from suffering, they differ in their approaches, practices, and emphasis on certain principles. Both religions have had a profound influence on Indian culture and philosophy and continue to be significant spiritual traditions worldwide[14].
5. Comparison of core beliefs and principles in Jainism and Buddhism
Jainism and Buddhism are two ancient Indian religions that share some commonalities in their core beliefs and principles while also exhibiting distinct differences.
5.1 Core Beliefs and Principles of Jainism:
Ahimsa (Non-violence): Central to Jainism is the principle of ahimsa, or non-violence, which extends not only to physical harm but also to thoughts and words. Jains strive to minimize harm to all living beings.
Anekantavada (Multiplicity of viewpoints): Jainism teaches the concept of anekantavada, which acknowledges the multiplicity of viewpoints and the idea that truth is perceived differently from different perspectives. This principle promotes tolerance and understanding.
Aparigraha (Non-possessiveness): Aparigraha is the principle of non-attachment or non-possessiveness. Jains believe in living a simple life and minimizing desires to detach themselves from material possessions[15].
Karma (Law of Cause and Effect): Jains believe in the concept of karma, which states that every action, whether mental, verbal, or physical, has consequences. They emphasize the importance of performing righteous actions to accumulate positive karma.
Moksha (Liberation): The ultimate goal in Jainism is to achieve moksha, liberation from the cycle of birth and death (samsara). This is attained through spiritual purification, enlightenment, and the shedding of karma.
5.2 Core Beliefs and Principles of Buddhism
The Four Noble Truths: Buddhism revolves around the Four Noble Truths, which elucidate the nature of suffering (dukkha), its causes, its cessation, and the path to its cessation (the Eightfold Path).
The Eightfold Path: This path consists of eight practices: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. Practicing these leads to the cessation of suffering and the attainment of enlightenment (nirvana)[16].
Anatta (No-self): Buddhism teaches the concept of anatta, or no-self, which asserts that there is no permanent, unchanging self or soul. This concept challenges the idea of a fixed identity and promotes the understanding of the interconnectedness of all phenomena.
Metta (Loving-kindness): Buddhism emphasizes the cultivation of metta, or loving-kindness, towards oneself and all beings. Practicing loving-kindness leads to the development of compassion and the alleviation of suffering.
Rebirth and Karma: Similar to Jainism, Buddhism also believes in the concepts of rebirth and karma. Individuals are bound to the cycle of samsara due to their karmic actions, and the goal is to attain enlightenment and escape this cycle.[17]
While, both Jainism and Buddhism share a commitment to non-violence, karma, and liberation from suffering, they differ in their philosophical interpretations, practices, and emphasis on certain principles. Despite these distinctions, both religions advocate for ethical conduct, spiritual development, and the pursuit of ultimate truth and liberation.
6. Exploration of concepts such as karma, dharma, and liberation (moksha/nirvana)
Both Buddhism and Jainism are ancient Indian religions that share some common philosophical concepts, including karma, dharma, and liberation, but they interpret them in slightly different ways.
6.1 Karma
In both Buddhism and Jainism, karma refers to the law of cause and effect. Actions, whether physical, verbal, or mental, have consequences. Good actions lead to positive consequences, while bad actions lead to negative consequences. Karma is often seen as a moral law governing the universe, ensuring that individuals reap the results of their actions, whether in this life or in future lives (reincarnation).
6.2 Dharma
Dharma, in both Buddhism and Jainism, refers to the moral and ethical duties or principles that individuals should follow. It encompasses concepts like righteousness, duty, and cosmic order. Following dharma leads to positive karma and spiritual progress. However, there are differences in how dharma is understood and practiced in each tradition. For example, in Jainism, dharma includes principles such as non-violence (ahimsa), truthfulness (satya), non-stealing (asteya), celibacy (brahmacharya), and non-attachment (aparigraha)[18].
6.3 Liberation (Moksha/Nirvana)
In Buddhism, liberation is often referred to as Nirvana. It is the ultimate goal of the spiritual journey, representing the cessation of suffering and the end of the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (samsara). Nirvana is attained through the eradication of ignorance, craving, and attachment, leading to the realization of the true nature of reality (emptiness or shunyata)[19].
In Jainism, liberation is known as Moksha. It is the state of eternal bliss, liberation from the cycle of birth and death, and the freedom from karma. Moksha is achieved through the purification of the soul (jiva) by following the path of righteousness, practicing austerity, and cultivating spiritual knowledge.
While both Buddhism and Jainism share similar concepts of karma, dharma, and liberation, they differ in their philosophical interpretations and practices. However, both traditions emphasize the importance of ethical conduct, spiritual development, and the pursuit of liberation from suffering.
7. Ethical Values and Social Impact
Buddhism and Jainism are two ancient Indian religions that have had significant ethical and social impacts throughout history. Here’s a brief overview of their ethical values and social impacts:
7.1 Ethical Values in Buddhism
Non-violence (Ahimsa): Buddhism emphasizes non-violence towards all living beings, promoting compassion and empathy.
The Middle Way (Madhyamā-pratipad): Buddha taught the importance of moderation and balance in all aspects of life, avoiding extremes.
Karma: The belief in the law of cause and effect, where one’s actions have consequences in this life or the next, encourages ethical behavior[20].
7.2 Ethical Values in Jainism
Non-violence (Ahimsa): Similar to Buddhism, Jainism places a strong emphasis on non-violence towards all living beings, extending to thoughts, words, and actions.
Asceticism (Tapas): Jainism advocates for self-discipline and austerity as a means of purifying the soul and achieving liberation.
Non-possessiveness (Aparigraha): Jains believe in minimizing attachment to material possessions, promoting simplicity and detachment.
8. Promotion of Non-Violence, Compassion, and Tolerance
Both Buddhism and Jainism advocate for the promotion of non-violence, compassion, and tolerance as fundamental principles guiding human behavior and interaction. Rooted in the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha) and Mahavira, respectively, these ancient traditions emphasize the importance of ahimsa, or non-violence, towards all living beings. They encourage followers to cultivate compassion and empathy, fostering a deep sense of interconnectedness with all forms of life. Through practices such as meditation, mindfulness, and ethical living, adherents strive to embody tolerance and understanding, transcending divisions and promoting harmony in society. By nurturing these values, Buddhism and Jainism offer pathways towards personal transformation and the creation of a more peaceful and inclusive world[21].
9. Role of Jain And Buddhist Teachings in Fostering Social Harmony and Communal Coexistence
Jain and Buddhist teachings have played significant roles in fostering social harmony and communal coexistence through their emphasis on non-violence, compassion, and respect for all living beings. Both traditions advocate for the cultivation of empathy and understanding, encouraging individuals to treat others with kindness and tolerance regardless of differences. Jain philosophy, with its principle of ahimsa (non-violence), promotes a deep reverence for life and the interconnectedness of all beings, while Buddhist teachings, particularly the concept of metta (loving-kindness), emphasize the importance of extending compassion and goodwill towards all. These shared values serve as guiding principles for peaceful coexistence, encouraging communities to embrace diversity, resolve conflicts through dialogue, and work towards the common good[22].
10. Cultural Contributions
Jainism and Buddhism, both originating in ancient India, have made profound cultural contributions that have shaped the spiritual and philosophical landscape of the region and beyond. Jainism, founded by Lord Mahavira, emphasizes non-violence (ahimsa), truthfulness, non-attachment, and compassion towards all living beings. This philosophy has influenced Indian culture deeply, contributing to the development of vegetarianism, the sanctity of life, and the practice of non-violence, which resonates in various aspects of Indian society, including art, literature, and ethical conduct. Buddhism, founded by Siddhartha Gautama, or the Buddha, preaches the Noble Eightfold Path, centered on concepts such as mindfulness, compassion, and the cessation of suffering (nirvana). Its teachings have inspired a rich artistic tradition, notably in the form of sculpture, painting, and architecture across Asia. Buddhist principles have also permeated cultural practices such as meditation, mindfulness, and the pursuit of inner peace, leaving an indelible mark on the cultural fabric of numerous societies beyond the Indian subcontinent. Thus, both Jainism and Buddhism have left enduring legacies that continue to influence cultural norms, values, and expressions worldwide[23].
11. Architectural Marvels: Jain Temples, Stupas, and Monastic Complexes
Jain temples, stupas, and monastic complexes stand as timeless testaments to the architectural prowess and spiritual devotion of Jainism. Jain temples, characterized by intricate carvings and majestic spires, exude an aura of serenity and transcendence, inviting devotees to delve into introspection and meditation. Stupas, with their dome-shaped structures symbolizing the enlightened mind, serve as focal points for Buddhist and Jain pilgrimage, radiating peace and enlightenment. Monastic complexes, often nestled amidst natural landscapes, offer havens for contemplation and study, fostering a deep connection with the teachings of Jain philosophy. Each of these architectural marvels reflects the profound spiritual heritage and artistic ingenuity of Jain tradition, inspiring awe and reverence for generations to come[24].
12. Development of Indian Sculpture and Iconography
The development of Indian sculpture and iconography was significantly influenced by both Buddhism and Jainism. Buddhism, emerging in the 6th century BCE, emphasized the depiction of the Buddha in various postures such as the meditative pose (dhyana mudra) or the teaching pose (dharmachakra mudra), along with symbols like the lotus, the Bodhi tree, and the wheel of Dharma. This led to the creation of magnificent Buddha statues across the Indian subcontinent, characterized by serene expressions and graceful forms. Similarly, Jainism, with its focus on non-violence and asceticism, inspired the creation of sculptures depicting the Tirthankaras (spiritual teachers) in seated or standing postures, often adorned with auspicious symbols like the wheel, conch, and lotus. Both traditions contributed to the rich tapestry of Indian sculpture, reflecting profound spiritual ideals and artistic excellence[25].
13. Role of Jain and Buddhist Monastic Communities in the Spread of their Teachings
Jain and Buddhist monastic communities played pivotal roles in the dissemination of their respective teachings across ancient India and beyond. Rooted in principles of renunciation, non-violence, and compassion, both traditions emphasized the importance of personal transformation and spiritual discipline. Monks and nuns served as living embodiments of these ideals, traveling far and wide to preach, teach, and practice their faiths. Through their ascetic lifestyle and dedicated scholarship, they attracted followers and established monastic centers as hubs of learning and spiritual guidance. These communities not only preserved sacred texts and oral traditions but also actively engaged in dialogue with other religious groups, fostering a climate of religious tolerance and exchange. Their commitment to simplicity, humility, and ethical conduct inspired countless individuals to embrace their teachings, contributing significantly to the cultural and philosophical landscape of ancient India and beyond[26].
14. Impact of Jain and Buddhist Teachings on Modern Indian Society
The teachings of Jainism and Buddhism have left a profound impact on modern Indian society, influencing various aspects of cultural, social, and ethical norms. Both religions emphasize non-violence (ahimsa) and compassion towards all living beings, which have significantly contributed to the promotion of peace and harmony within Indian communities. These principles have influenced various social movements advocating for animal rights, environmental conservation, and nonviolent activism. Moreover, Jain and Buddhist teachings have fostered a deep sense of introspection and mindfulness, leading to the popularity of meditation practices across India. Concepts such as karma, rebirth, and the impermanence of material possessions have also influenced individuals’ perspectives on life, leading many to prioritize spiritual growth and inner peace over material pursuits. Additionally, the emphasis on simplicity and minimalism in Jain and Buddhist philosophies has inspired movements promoting sustainable living and ethical consumption practices in modern Indian society. Overall, the teachings of Jainism and Buddhism continue to shape the moral fabric of Indian society, fostering values of compassion, mindfulness, and ethical responsibility[27].
15. Conclusion
In conclusion, the integrated contributions of Jainism and Buddhism have left an indelible mark on Bharat’s (Indian) culture, shaping its spiritual, philosophical, and ethical dimensions. Both Jainism and Buddhism emerged as profound responses to the socio-religious milieu of ancient India, offering alternative paths to salvation and enlightenment. One of the most significant contributions of Jainism and Buddhism lies in their emphasis on non-violence (ahimsa) and compassion. These principles have deeply influenced Indian society, promoting tolerance, harmony, and respect for all forms of life. The concept of ahimsa has permeated various aspects of Bharat’s culture, from dietary practices to political ideologies, fostering a more peaceful and humane society.
Moreover, both traditions have played pivotal roles in the evolution of Indian philosophy. Jainism’s doctrine of anekantavada (the multiplicity of viewpoints) and Buddhism’s emphasis on impermanence (anicca) and interconnectedness (pratityasamutpada) have enriched philosophical discourse, stimulating intellectual inquiry and debate for centuries. Furthermore, Jainism and Buddhism have contributed immensely to the development of Indian art, architecture, literature, and education. The architectural marvels of Jain and Buddhist monuments, such as the Ajanta and Ellora caves, reflect not only the religious fervor but also the artistic brilliance of ancient India. Similarly, the rich literary heritage of texts like the Jataka tales and Pali canon continues to inspire generations, showcasing the cultural and intellectual legacy of these traditions.
In contemporary India, the teachings of Jainism and Buddhism remain relevant, offering profound insights into the human condition and pathways to personal and societal transformation. Their emphasis on mindfulness, ethical conduct, and the pursuit of wisdom continues to inspire individuals seeking meaning and purpose in life. Overall, the integrated contributions of Jainism and Buddhism have contributed to the tapestry of Bharat’s cultural identity, enriching it with timeless values of non-violence, compassion, wisdom, and artistic expression. As India navigates the complexities of the modern world, the enduring legacy of these ancient traditions serves as a guiding light, reminding us of our shared humanity and the importance of living in harmony with all beings.
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[1] Balcerowicz, Piotr. (2009). Jainism and the Definition of Religion. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay.
[2] Conze, E (1967). Thirty Years of Buddhist Studies Selected Essays. Oxford: Bruno Cassirer Publications Ltd.
[3] Balcerowicz, Piotr. (2009). Jainism and the Definition of Religion. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay.
[4] Ibid
[5] Conze, E (1967). Thirty Years of Buddhist Studies Selected Essays. Oxford: Bruno Cassirer Publications Ltd.
[6] Ibid
[7] Dhammananada, K. Sri. (2000). The Buddhist Way. Kuala Lumpur: The Sasana Abhiwurdha Wardhana Society Publications.
[8] Ibid
[9] Bhattacharyya, Narendra Nath. (1999). Jain Philosophy: Historical Outline. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal.
[10] Chatterjee, Asim Kumar. (2000). A Comprehensive History of Jainism, Vol. 1: From the Earliest Beginnings to AD 1000. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers.
[11] Dundas, Paul. (2002). The Jains. New York: Routledge.
[12] Chopara, P. N. (1986). The Ocean of Wisdom: the Life of the Dalai Lama XIV. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Private Ltd.
[13] Collins, S. (2010). Nirvana: Concept, Imagery, and Narrative. UK: Cambridge University Press.
[14] Ibid
[15] Dixit, K. K. (1978). Early Jainism. Ahmedabad: L. D. Institute of Indology.
[16] Conze, E (1967). Thirty Years of Buddhist Studies Selected Essays. Oxford: Bruno Cassirer Publications Ltd.
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[27] Ibid
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