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Critical Thinking Pedagogy in Philosophical Traditions of Ancient India

ॐ सह नाववतु ।
सह नौ भुनक्तु ।
सह वीर्यं करवावहै ।
तेजस्वि नावधीतमस्तु मा विद्विषावहै ।
ॐ शान्तिः शान्तिः शान्तिः ॥

Om Saha Naav[au]-Avatu |
Saha Nau Bhunaktu |
Saha Viiryam Karavaavahai |
Tejasvi Naav[au]-Adhiitam-Astu Maa Vidvissaavahai |
Om Shaantih Shaantih Shaantih ||

Om, Together may we two Move (in our Studies, the Teacher and the Student),
Together may we two Relish (our Studies, the Teacher and the Student),
Together may we perform (our Studies) with Vigour (with deep Concentration),
May what has been Studied by us be filled with the Brilliance (of Understanding, leading to Knowledge);
May it Not give rise to Hostility (due to lack of Understanding), Om Peace, Peace, Peace.

-Krishna Yajurveda Taittiriya Upanishad, 2.2.2

Introduction

India has a rich tradition of learning and education right from the time immemorial. From its early beginnings and even today a teacher and student together recite the above mantra at the start of an interactive session as a means of calling upon universal consciousness to exchange the learning in harmony.

One of the significant features of ancient India is that it has been moulded and shaped in the course of its history more by spiritual than by political, or economic influences. India has a long and documented legal history, as well as a body of compositions known as Shrutis and Smritis, that date back to the Vedic era. Historically it is difficult to pinpoint on the exact time when the Vedic Education system emerged and on this some historians disagree with each other. Irrespective of these disagreements, the point is, the Vedic education system continued to exist up to 400 – 600 CE with gradual changes through three major facets, Early Vedic Education, Later Vedic Education and Brahmanic Education. It could be factually observed that the Vedic Education might be one of the oldest formal education systems in the world.

Philosophy of Ancient Indian Education

Education in ancient India had emerged in accordance with the Philosophy of Vedas, its ultimate aim being the attainment of Liberation, or Moksha. It was essentially the education that aimed at the refinement of the mind and also to prepare oneself to live a normal, simple life. Education was supposed to free the human being of all earthly bondages. The mind or ‘citta’ is the cause of both bondage, and liberation. If one loses control over mind, it leads to bondage. Control of mind is the path towards ultimate Liberation. Education was supposed to be a way for ‘Citta Vritti Nirodha’ – controlling the vicissitudes of the mind.

In the Vedic period, learning did not mean merely the acts of ‘listening, reading and writing.’ Learning was equal to the realisation of one’s own self; education was a process of self- realization and self-actualization. The axiology of the Vedic era did not distinguish the social values and the personal values. Both the personal and social values were part of the proclaimed universal eternal values – Satyam, Sivam and Sundaram (Truth, Goodness and Beauty). This Indian view of the identity of personality and conduct with teaching is well rendered in criticism of the education system as proclaimed in the west. Heinrich Zimmer states, “The real attainment is only what finds confirmation in one’s own life.”i The worth of a person’s overt expressions depends on the degree to which one’s life itself is an example of self-learning. The approach of our Vedic seers and sages towards life, their subtle analysis and codification of duties, all indicate their cherished spiritual values. Their political as well as social realities were not circumscribed within the narrow geographical bounds. Their attitude to life was characterized by depth and width of vision and they identified their duty with devotion to the ideal of ‘summum bonum’ of humankind. Multi-dimensional progress of not just one’s own kind but all of humankind became the sole objective of Indian civilization.

The ancient Indian polity attached due importance to prosperity in life. Even while religion and philosophy was more so a living force in India, she equally succeeded in science, industry, art and literature, military strength and agricultural prosperity. It is believed that Life had a definite aim, an ideal or a goal and the attainment of which was thought to transcend all material achievements. Ancient Indian Education had been evolved strictly on the foundations of Indian epistemological and philosophical traditions. The idea of the ephemerality of life and the world, the concept of ultimate death and the futility of mundane pleasures had provided them with a special way of looking at life. The entire educational tradition originated in the principles prescribed such as Varnashramadharma and Purusharthas. The former classified as Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra directed the activities of the entire nation into productive and useful channels. The great mass of people became industrious. Honesty in trade and diligence in arts reached a high level of excellence. The latter known as Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha determined one’s pursuit in life. Ancient Indian education has its own peculiar importance for a harmonious development of physical, mental and spiritual aspects of human life. It helped a lot in the development of character and individuality of human beings. Hence the emphasis on self-reliance, self-control, formation of character, individual development, knowledge of social and civil life and preservation of national culture was accompanied with the physical development as the aim of education.

Mr. F.E. Keay, in his book named ‘History of Indian Education, Ancient and Later Times’

observes,

“Not only did Ancient Indian education develop a system of education which survived the crumbling empires and the changes of the society, but they also, through all these thousands of years, kept aglow of the torch of higher learning, and numbered amongst them many great thinkers who have left their mark not only on the learning of India, but upon the intellectual life of the World.”

The long Indian traditional ‘culture of critical inquiry’ and ‘public debate’ have served the country well. In our journey through the challenges and opportunities of the 21st century, we need to educate ourselves in the same way as we want to act; i.e., ingeniously, collaboratively, constantly rehearsing and initiating to deliver with structure and logic.

Critical Thinking Pedagogy in the Vedas and Upanishads

The philosophy of Vedas treated reality as a Divine Perfection. Vedas considered as Holy Scriptures consist of the theory of metaphysics that was revealed to the disciples through the learning of Vedas. Oral transmission of knowledge was the accepted system. The concept of ‘the reality’ had developed based upon the Vedas and Upanishads. Hence the process of instruction was based on three steps –

Sravana: Listening to words of texts as they were uttered by the teacher.

Manana: The process of deliberation or reflection of the topic which was taught.

Nididhyasana: The highest stage or a meditation on the knowledge.

The main characteristics of philosophical study is not just to learn to know objects in the given situation and surroundings, or to investigate their causal connection; it rather seeks beyond all these to determine their nature with all the explanations offered by empirical sciences, as something which needs to be further explained; and this is taking place through the method of critical thinking it seeks to infer the real nature of things and their relation. The Upanishads have advanced critical thinking pedagogy, the Guru uses it as an experiential teaching-learning method while discussing with Shishya. Such a discussion or debate empowers the shishya to be reflective to hear the unheard, to comprehend the uncomprehend, to know the unknown. This is evident in the Chandogya Upanishad, the famous Udalaka Shwetketu Samvada, to engage Shwetaketu to assimilate his understanding of Vedanta. One of the excerpts is stated as- “what then, most reverent Guru, is this instruction?’… ‘Just as, my dear Guru, from a lump of clay everything that consists of clay is known, the change is a matter of words alone, a mere name, it is in reality only clay.’

In short ‘all which we regard as real is mere name.’ This is self-realization and it involves both reflective and reflexive thinking which is the outcome of critical thinking.

In the present time, the problem is as much about how we are taught, as much as, it is about what is being taught. So, our concern is more so with human thinking as we are skillfully training not only job seekers but also job makers. In order to fulfil this, critical thinking needs to be reconceived as both reflective and reflexive. ‘Reflective’ in the sense of deep thought about something, and ‘reflexive’ as taking account of oneself. This includes seeing the effects that one’s thinking has both within and outside oneself. These two kinds of looking within are very connected because reflection is necessary for reflexivity, and the latter in turn enhances the quality of one’s reflections. Because to know is not enough, in this course we learn to do so both within and about the field(s) of study we engage, thereby taking reflections to the reflexive level.

The education model was mostly student-centered, with each center of education being known by the popular dialogues and discussions that have taken place in the Gurukula. Disciples in the Ashram were under the sole guidance of the Guru, both in life and in learning. In ancient India, education was not burdened with any pre-planned, mundane aims of material objectives. It was just the process of a ‘Man-Making Education,’ which aimed to develop a mundane individual to ‘an active individual of responsibilities and divine powers.’ The major aim of education during the Vedic period was to provide training for the youngsters in performing their social, political, economic and religious duties. It also aimed at the preservation of culture, transformation of character, personality development and the inculcation of moral values. Of course, there were certain classified aims like learning the Canonical Texts, learning the Purusharthas, acquiring values, learning epics and puranas, understanding Rajyathanthra (politics of ascendency) and knowing about the life after death. Paul Deussen stated that in the Upanishads, “there are philosophical conceptions unequalled in India or perhaps anywhere else in the world.”

Critical Thinking Pedagogy in the Sutras and the Epics

Dharmasutras embodied the principles of social conduct and a code of duties for the teachers and students. The entire Sutra literature consists of mainly six divisions known as Vedangas. A pre-knowledge of various subjects such as Siksha, Chhadas, Vyakaran, Kalpa and Jyotisha was indispensable for the sake of comprehending the Vedas. One special feature of education of this period is specialization of students in different branches of learning. This period is the most important one from the viewpoint of its constructive and creative aspect in ancient Indian education in as much as such important branches of learning as Geometry, Algebra, Astronomy, Astrology, Physiology and Grammar reached the culminating point in this period. The commentary of Patanjali is a phenomenal work of ancient India. The Nyaya and Mimamsa Sutras too were the philosophically engaging works of this age. Besides these works, the Smritis were written for the proper guidance of life. The account of education in the Sutra period also includes the literature on grammar as represented in the works of Panini and his two famous commentators, Katyayana and Patanjali.

The educational system during the Sutra period was identical with that of the Upanishad period. Critical thinking was used as means to help the disciple make well thought, reasoned logical judgements. All the unwritten regulations, social and religious traditions and long standing conventions, had been compiled in the sutras in a well-arranged and systematic order. Such a colossal task ensures the fact that critical thinking was in its best way possible practiced, with it the Gurus, Acharyas created literature with a proper course of study for the students. The necessity of regular institutions was felt for higher education. Various sciences and arts such as handicrafts, medicine, sculpture and architecture had attained the peak of development. Thus, the sole objective of the entire system of education during this period was character formation, development of personality and protection of ancient culture.

One special feature of the literature of the Sutra period is the theories of philosophy being composed and regarded as gaining prominence and progressing all over. In this period, the stream of philosophical thought flowed out chiefly in six different channels. In this way developed six systems of philosophy (Darshana Shastra), viz, The Samkhya of Kapila, The Yoga of Patanjali, The Nyaya of Gautama, The Vaisheshika of Kanada, Karma or Purva- mimansa of Jaimini and Uttara Mimamsa or Vedanta of Badarayana.

The Ramayana and the Mahabharata give us glimpses into the creed of militarism of that age, which throw light upon the education of that period. The Mahabharata tells of numerous hermitages where pupils from distant parts gathered for instruction around some of the renowned teachers. A full-fledged Ashram is described as consisting of several Departments which are enumerated as following:

  1. Agnisthana, the place for fire-worship and prayers
  2. Brahma-sthana, the Department of Veda
  3. Vishnusthana, the Department for teaching Raja-Niti, Arthaniti, and Vartta
  4. Mahendrasthana, Military Section
  5. Vivasvata-sthana, Department of Astronomy
  6. Somasthana, Department of Botany
  7. Garuda-sthana, Section dealing with Transport and Conveyances
  8. Kartikeya-sthana, Section teaching military organization, how to form patrols, battalions, and army.

The most important of such hermitage was that of the Naimisha, a forest, which was like a university. The presiding personality of the place was Saunaka, to whom was applied the designation of Kulapati, sometimes defined as the preceptor of 10,000 disciples. The hermitage of Kanva was another famous centre of learning, of which a full description is given. It is situated on the banks of the Malini, a tributary of the Sarayu River. It was not a solitary hermitage, but an assemblage of numerous hermitages around the central hermitage of Rishi Kanva, the presiding spirit of the settlement. There were specialists in every branch of learning cultivated in that age; specialists in each of the four Vedas; in sacrificial literature and art, Kalpa-Sutras in the Chhanda (Metrics), Sabda (Vyakarana), and Nirukta. There were also Logicians, knowing the principles of Nyaya, and of Dialectics (the art of establishing propositions, solving doubts, and ascertaining conclusions). There were also specialists in the physical sciences and art. There were, for example, experts in the art of constructing sacrificial altars of various dimensions and shapes (on the basis of a knowledge of Solid Geometry); those who had knowledge of the properties of matter (dravyaguna); of physical processes and their results of causes and their effect; and zoologists having a special knowledge of monkeys and birds. It was thus a forest University where the study of every available branch of learning was cultivated.

The hermitage of Vyasa was another seat of learning. There Vyasa taught the Vedas to his disciples. Among the other hermitages noticed by the Mahabharata may be mentioned those of Vasishtha and Visvamitra and that in the forest of Kamyaka on the banks of the Saraswati. But a hermitage near Kurukshetra deserves special notice for the interesting fact recorded that it produced two noted women hermits.

Military science was generally called Dhanurveda. The Mahabharata marks the culmination of military art and science. In ancient times, military education was not only organized by the State, but on the other hand private individual instructors too would undertake this duty. In every village, there were military training camps where villagers were given military education for self-defense. Mainly speaking, dancing, music, painting, sculpture, architecture, carpentry and smithery (blacksmith or goldsmith) were some such arts and crafts, which helped a major portion of the population of the country to earn their livelihood. In the early Vedic age handicrafts and agriculture were held in high esteem. Students approached the learned sages for the acquisition of knowledge. Parents too encouraged it and sent their wards to the institutions. When their number began to increase the institutions formed with these students began to grow gradually. With the lapse of time these institutions turned into Universities and were maintained with the gift (philanthropy) of the public and the state (grants/funds). In this way many institutions were formed of which Taxila, Ujjain, Nalanda, Benares, Ballavi, Ajanta, Madura and Vikramsila were very famous. Taxila was famous for medicine and Ujjain for Astronomy. Both were pre-Buddhist. Jibaka the well-known medical expert and the state physician of the King of Magadha of the 6th century BCE. and Panini the famous grammarian of the 7th century BCE and Kautilya, the authority on Arthasastra, of the 4th century BCE were students of Taxila.

Indigenous teaching and learning method in India

The existence of both learning resources and learning centres in the form of Gurukul tradition, Universities are the best archaeological evidences for the prevalence of education system in India.ii The Badrayan Brahma Sutra in its first Sloka describes the concept of teaching and learning as Athato Brahma Jigyasa. Here ‘Brahm’ is derived from sanskrit root word ‘Br’ to grow and it stands for knowledge. To impart knowledge, the first and foremost objective is creation of inquisitiveness and intense desire to learn. Once jigyasa (curiosity or inquisitiveness) is created, the learners’ self-directed efforts will make a learner to find ways and means to gain knowledge out of all available resources, enabling one to evolve and transform.iii The presence of early foundations of knowledge makes it significant that the Gurus were well versed with what can a thinking mind conceive, so they conceptualised knowledge as ‘relation’, ‘act’, ‘quality’ and self-subsistent.’ As a result, when a learners’ curiosity was kindled, a seeker’s jnana (cognition), upalabdhi (attainment of outcomes) and buddhi (intellect) functioned to prepare oneself in order to deal with the empirical affairs in the world treated as a field of action (Karmamayam jagat). Hence learners were tested when presented with an object of inquiry, the ones who arrived with novel solutions or answers, in them that imparted knowledge served its purpose called as arthakriyakari.

According to Akshapada Gautama the proponent of Nyaya School, doubt (samsaya) and desire to know (jigyasa) are the prerequisites of any inquiry. At this point the utility for human good (Purusharthas) is explicitly stated. In order to pursue good things in life, careful analysis of pros and cons of the issue (pakshapratipaksha) is done and an attempt is made to ascertain the true knowledge. The seeker of knowledge is advised to observe the following steps of rigorous critical inquiry:

  1. use all valid sources of knowledge (pramanas)
  2. use established theories (siddhanta)
  3. use examples acceptable to all (udharana)
  4. use five-step method of discovery and proof (syllogistic reasoning)
  5. use the indirect hypothetical method to strengthen the argument (inductive inference)
  6. avoid material fallacy (hetvabhasa)
  7. avoid petty disagreements (chala)
  8. avoid false analogies (jati) and
  9. avoid self-satisfying steps which may cause defeat in debates (cognitive biases)

Thus, the foundation of the above critical inquiry serves as an indigenous pedagogical tool to give rise to knowledge acquired by direct experience, introspection, knowledge obtained from other valid sources, current linguistic usage and knowledge of previously established theories. Some thinkers in (Mimamsa and Vedanta) believe validity of knowledge is regarded natural who think the conditions of validity lie within the very conditions that generate the knowledge (svatah-pramanya vada); while some other thinkers in (Nyaya and Vaisesika) hold that knowledge needs external validity (pratah-pramanya vada); some view (Sankhya, Vedanta, Prabhakara, Jaina) it self-manifests (svaha-prakasha); still some other consider it is based on introspection (Nyaya Anumana). As a result, true knowledge (vidya) leads to the awareness of the unity of all the manifestations. On the other hand, ignorance (avidya) denotes an understanding which leads to all things as separate and diverse.

Critical Thinking as practiced in Guru-Shishya tradition

असतो मां सद्गमय |
तमसो मां ज्योतिर्-गमय |
मृत्योर्-मा अमृतं गमय ||

asato māṃ sadgamaya |
tamaso māṃ jyotir-gamaya |
mṛtyor-mā amṛtaṃ gamaya ||

The scriptures acclaim the Guru is one who leads a learner from untruth to truth; from darkness towards light; and from death to immortality. The guru has the proficiency of looking into the shishya’s future skill-based learning that can result into declarative and procedural knowledge. The different methods of learning were –

  • Memorisation– The preliminary stage of learning was the process of learning the sacred texts by heart through an infinite number of repetitions and rehearsals, both by the teacher and the taught.
  • Critical Analysis – A critical analysis was made on the existing knowledge.
  • Introspection – The student had the opportunity to look back at his own knowledge and capabilities. The combined process of Sravana (listening), Manana (contemplation) and Nididhyasa (concentrated contemplation) of the truth so as to realize it was another method to study Brahma Vidya (Vedanta).
  • Storytelling – Use of stories and parables to explain philosophies and principles was the most popular method of that time. The use of ballads was also very common in that period.
  • Question and Answer Method – In this method, the students would ask questions and the teacher would discuss at length on the topics, clearing their doubts. It was the same as the modern Socratic Method.
  • Seminars – The students gained and expressed knowledge through talks, elocutions, debates and discussions which were held at frequent intervals.

Conclusion

Significant Features of Indian Education – ancient to modern

Education in India has developed through years of refinement. It had almost all attributes that a modern education system possesses. Some of the specific features are mentioned below in the table:

In India education is the moulding and training of the mind by which the expression of will are brought under control through critical evaluation and becomes fruitful in life. In the words of Swami Vivekananda, “Education is the manifestation of the perfection already in man.”

i Zimmer, Heinrich. Philosophies of India (ed.) Joseph Campbell. Bollingen Series XXVI. pp.50

ii Ancient Education System of India. https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/heih111.pdf Accessed on 10th October 2023

iii Kaushik RK. . https://sanskrits.wordpress.com/2018/08/04//Accessed on 8th October 2023

References

Deussen, Paul (1906), The Philosophy of the Upanishads.Dover Oublications. INC., New York.

Prabhu, Joseph (2006), Educational Institutions and Philosophies, Traditional and Modern. Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2) edited by Stanley Wolpert.

Misra, Girishwar and Mohanty, Ajit. K (Ed.) (2002), Perspectives on Indigenous Psychology. Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi.

Zimmer, Heinrich (1951), Philosophies of India (ed.) Joseph Campbell. Bollingen Series XXVI.

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