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Essence of Shad-Darshana in Retracing the Nuances of IKS Synergized with Achievement Motivation

Abstract

Indian Knowledge System is a vast repository of knowledge in the form of tripartite nature comprising Jnan, Vignan and Jeevan Darshan which evolved from observation, experience, experimentation and rigorous analysis. It strengthened intellectual traditions and cultural practices of the society, through the society & for the society. It proliferated the achievement motivation among individuals in reshaping the society through educational milieu. Achievement motivation is the desire to excel the goals in the journey of the achievement of success. It reflects an individual’s highest potential to which they are  oriented towards striving for excellence, tailoring and mastering tasks, and building skills and behaviour to conquer the goals of life. This infers and clarifies why some people persistently pursue goals, while others may feel less driven. The key elements such as ambition, competition, determination, goal-orientation, risk positivity, task persistence, solution-oriented and roleplay are highlighted as critical components that encourage a growth-oriented mindset and bloom the individuals with achievement motivation. This paper tends to explore the intricate relationship between the Indian Knowledge System (IKS) and achievement motivation, by using the orthodox Vedic Indian Philosophies known as Shad-Darshana which comprises Nyaya for logic and epistemology, Vaisesika for atomism and metaphysics, Samkhya for enumeration and dualism, Yoga for mind control and meditation, Purva-Mimansa for ritual interpretation and Vedanta for philosophy of the Upanishads. These Brahmanical systems of thought accept the authority of Vedas. These philosophies discuss the nature of reality, epistemics, ethics, logic, and ways of attaining knowledge which is not possible to imagine without inherent achievement motivation within an individual. Through qualitative analysis of Vedic Indian Philosophies- Shad-Darshana, this study addresses the graces of traditional frameworks under Indian Knowledge System in the advancement of contemporary learning practices and educational discourses in the 21st century by aligning the relevance of achievement motivation. For this purpose, theories have been thoroughly analysed and recorded by coining the 7C forces including confidence, competition, capacity building, creativity, causal characteristics, consistency and cascading goals respectively which turned into a comprehensive approach for achievement motivation. Further, the Sutras incorporated from each Darshana deeply investigated and provided some principles related to achievement motivation such as belief in oneself, striving for accomplishment, grace with powers, recognition of qualities of soul, voice, mind, and body interaction, sustained effort for perfect discipline and attainment of ultimate goal respectively. These principles of Shad-Darshana uncovers this unique combination and synergy with the dimensions of achievement motivation. All the principles are found relevant in view of current academic activities and with the recommendations of National Education Policy 2020. This synergy opens the door of opportunity for the need of the current education system to blend with the traditional knowledge system for individual growth and social and professional excellence. This research also encompasses the vital role of Indigenous knowledge systems in providing intellectual, ethical and spiritual integrity intertwined with self-discipline and intrinsic motivation.

Keywords

Indian Knowledge System (IKS), Shad-Darshana, Achievement Motivation, Educational Milieu, National Education Policy (NEP) 2020.

1. Introduction

The Indian Knowledge System (IKS) is a vast repository of knowledge enriched with intellectual, ethical, philosophical and spiritual traditions. It has evolved with the time since the beginning of human civilization, popularised gradually and practiced with wide acceptability. It draws the human potential, consciousness, self-reliance and knowledge of reality within an individual to cope up with the difficulties and hurdles of life to help in achieving ultimate goals of life.

The Indian Knowledge System was focused on the preparation for life beyond schooling by developing the complete realization and liberation to the self. It encompasses Vedas, Puranas, Shad-Darshana, Smritis and Upsmritis, Arthashastra and many more. This system impacted our education, arts, administration, law, justice, health, manufacturing and commerce. The great scholars Charaka, Susruta, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Chanakya, Patanjali, Nagarjuna, Sankardev, Gautama, Maitreyi, Gargi etc. were famous for their great contribution in the field of ayurveda, medical science and surgery, mathematics, astronomy, political science, yoga, metallurgy, fine arts, civil engineering and architecture, and philosophy etc. Some of the famous institutions such as Takshashila, Nalanda, Vikramshila, Vallabhi etc. were known for imparting education in ancient India. (NEP, 2020)

Central to this system are the Shad-Darshana, also known as orthodox Vedic Indian philosophies or system of classical Hindu philosophy. The 6 classical schools are: Nyaya for Logic and epistemology; Vaisesika for Atomism and metaphysics; Samkhya for Enumeration and dualism; Yoga for Mind control and meditation; Purva-Mimansa for Ritual interpretation and Vedanta for Philosophy of the Upanishads. These schools are distinct but interconnected to collectively offer a comprehensive understanding of metaphysics, epistemology, axiology and individual development.

The new policies and recent research reflect the potential of the Indian knowledge system to address emerging challenges in the realm of psychology and motivation. Achievement motivation is a term used in social psychology and a critical determinant of an individual’s success across different domains of life. Achievement motivation refers to the drive or desire to succeed, accomplish goals, excel in tasks, and achieve a standard of excellence in specific domains. It is a psychological construct that mandates brainstorming within an individual by indulging in goal-oriented behaviour to get competence, mastery, and success.

The most prominent theories in this field are McClelland’s achievement motivation theory and Edward Deci and Richard Ryan’s self-determination theory. These theories collectively focused on attaining competencies for personal growth and success. Here, the Shad-Darshana illuminates unique insights to understand achievement motivation with respect to human aspiration, self-regulation, and the pursuit of excellence.

This paper aims to retrace the nuances of the Indian Knowledge System, with a specific focus on the Shad-Darshana, to investigate how these ancient philosophies are synergized with modern concepts of achievement motivation. By exploring the epistemological, metaphysical, axiological and individual development dimensions, this study intends to bridge the ancient and modern pathways in accordance with the needs of the 21st century. Further, the study showcases comprehensive understanding of human motivation, particularly in the context of education, personal growth, and societal progress.

2. Contemporary Discussions of Achievement Motivation

Achievement motivation acts as a medium of cognitive, emotional, social & professional development within an individual. In recent years, this term got prevalent in context to academics and environment perspectives. Bureau of Labor Statistics (1999) suggested that achievement motivation is a combination of two personality variables: tendency to approach success and tendency to avoid failure, to promote combatting the challenges of the 21st century to succeed (Barcena, 2022). There are various psychological theories described in the literature of achievement motivation and some of the prominent theories are drawn to develop the understanding of achievement motivation. Here, some common theories are presented below:

2.1 Atkinson Expectancy-Value Theory (1957): Atkinson presented a two-factor theory-

  • Expectancy: Individual’s belief in his ability to complete a task.
  • Value: Individual’s belief for valuing the outcome or the success itself.

Wigfield & Eccles (2000) noted achievement, performance, persistence and choice as directly to individuals’ expectancy-related and task value beliefs (Wigifield, 2016). This theory suggests that achievement motivation depends on the confidence in both the likelihood of outcome and the personal value of the task for an individual. Higher expectancy and values lead to stronger motivation in achieving the goals.

2.2 McClelland’s Need for Achievement (nAch) Theory (1961): It drives the motivation for the desire to excel, succeed, or compete with others. McClelland categorised this theory in two parts-

  • High nAch: It leads individuals to perform with highest efficiency to accept challenges, take responsibilities for end result, self-evaluation and improvement.
  • Low nAch: It leads to the tendency in individuals to avoid challenges and prefer easy tasks without using his own full efficiency due to fear of failure and procrastinating mindset.

McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, and Lowell (1958) defined the need for Achievement (nAch) as ‘success in competition with some standard of excellence’ (Moore, 2010). It highlights the competition to get success with higher standards of excellence.

2.3 Achievement Goal Theory (Nicholas 1984): This is a goal orientation theory based on-

  • Mastery Goals: A learning goal, focuses on competence development and understanding the task.
  • Performance Goals: Focus on demonstrating competence; it can be either positive as approach-oriented (showing ability) or negative as avoidance-oriented (avoiding failure). (Nicholas & Elliot, 2016).

Mastery goals are related to developing competencies in the process of learning but the performance goals are either approach-oriented as showing the abilities and competencies or avoidance-oriented as avoiding failure. An individual enjoys on one hand in showing abilities but may face stress on the other hand. In this situation, the competencies and abilities act upon to develop resilience by adapting the individual in difficult situations. Through deep learning strategies, these goals collectively focus on capacity building to get success.

2.4 Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985): This theory is based on motivation factors and is classified as-

  • Intrinsic Motivation: Engaging in an interesting task, originated intrinsically in mind within oneself.
  • Extrinsic Motivation: Engaging in a task either for reward or to avoid punishment. Three basic psychological needs for sustained motivation: Autonomy- the need to feel in control of one’s actions and choices; Competence- the need to feel effective and capable in one’s activities; and Relatedness- the need to feel connected to others and experience a sense of belonging. (Deci & Ryan, 2014)

Intrinsically motivated individuals typically manifest higher persistence toward learning and creativity while extrinsic motivators are inconsistent and temporary, may work short-term only.  This theory suggests that creativity supports autonomy, fosters a sense of competence and provides opportunities for relatedness. Intrinsically motivated individuals show the most creativity.

2.5 Attribution Theory (Weiner 1974): According to Weiner, people attribute their performance to different causes, which can be categorized in three dimensions:

  • Locus of Control: Whether the cause is internal like effort and ability or external like task difficulty.
  • Stability: Whether the cause is stable like ability or unstable like effort.
  • Controllability: Whether the cause is controllable like effort or uncontrollable like luck. (Weiner, 2010)

This theory focuses on how individuals interpret their successes and failures. It reflects causal characteristics of success or failure. Individuals who attribute success to internal, controllable, and stable factors are more likely to be motivated and persist in the face of challenges. Conversely, attributing failure to uncontrollable or external factors leads to lower motivation.

2.6 Mindset Theory (Dweck, 2006): Dweck described two types of mindsets-

  • Fixed Mindset: Belief that abilities are static and cannot be changed. Individuals with a fixed mindset avoid challenges and give up easily in difficult situations.
  • Growth Mindset: Belief that abilities are malleable and can be developed through effort and learning. Individuals with a growth mindset embrace challenges as opportunities to grow. (David, 2015)

This theory believes that efforts are aligned with action and growth. People with a growth mindset are more likely to develop resilience, seek out challenges, and maintain high motivation, even in the face of failure (Carol Dweck, 2006). Consistency is crucial in this perspective if someone applies his mindset to deal with difficulties and challenges of real-world situations. A fixed mindset hinders growth but consistency of effort and perseverance in a growth mindset stimulates resilience and long-term success.

2.7 Goal-Setting Theory (Locke & Latham, 1990): The theory stresses on five principles-

  • Clarity: Set clear and specific goals;
  • Challenge: Set challenging goals that encourage people to work harder and stay motivated;
  • Commitment: People need to be committed to their goals;
  • Feedback: Provide regular feedback to keep people engaged and continuous working towards their goal;
  • Complexity: Manage by breaking down complex, ultimate goals into smaller. (Locke & Latham, 1991)

The core principle of this theory is goal clarity, challenge, commitment, feedback and complexity which are self-explanatory. Each principle of the goal-setting process works toward the desired goal, by breaking down the complexities into small specific targets. In this way, theory underlines the importance of cascading goals as a fundamental principle for aligning an overarching target by simplifying it into small steps and targets. It also defines the effect of goal specificity as variability of performance.

These theories highlight various personal, environmental and social factors that influence achievement motivation within an individual from personal beliefs to the stage of goal achievement. Theories are analysed thoroughly to get deeper understanding and to explore multiple dimensions of achievement motivation. Some important dimensions are shown in Figure 1.

(Figure 1: Forces of Achievement Motivation)

More nuanced observations of each theory hints to a particular force to influence achievement motivation. These forces are coined under 7Cs including Confidence, Competition, Capacity Building, Creativity, Causal characteristics, Consistency and Cascading Goals.

  • Confidence is interconnected with expectancy-value theory which is focused on believing one’s ability and valuing outcome. It is one of the most important qualities. Its dynamics are dependent on environmental factors, past experiences, self-reflection and self-realization which develop gradually and strengthen over time. It is essential to utilize one’s full potential in achieving personal aspirations. It plays a vital role to pierce the strong belief in self and fostering resilience to get success and higher achievement.
  • Competition is closely related to the need for achievement theory and is described in terms of personal benchmark. It signifies accepting challenges and taking responsibilities to drive for excellence with respect to intrinsic and self-driven motivation. Higher personal benchmark reflects higher performance, self-improvement, intended growth and progress of success of an individual.
  • Capacity Building is in the vicinity of achievement goal theory which reflects empowering potential by enhancing skills and capabilities to equip people with strength, courage and more confidence in pursuing a goal for the achievement of success. Capacity building provides opportunity for competence development and demonstration by fostering self-efficacy to drive through higher aspirations and diligently working towards their goal.
  • Creativity, the fundamental human nature, is the essence of self-determination theory which involves individuals in an interesting task. It enables individuals to generate new ideas in novel ways to set innovative goals. It inspires individuals through their creative effort, higher confidence and capacity to tackle even greater challenges in the way of ambitious goals by reinforcing their motivation.
  • Causal characteristics are the fundamental traits to reshape behaviour and motivation which is reflected by attribution theory. Internal, stable and controllable causal traits provide opportunity in various scenarios of life in distinct perspectives. It helps to enhance experiences to redefine strategies to motivate efforts in shaping individual’s capabilities to achieve desired goals.
  • Consistency of sustained effort is supported by mindset theory, indicating the status of mental strength and stability of an individual in respect to setting goals. Individuals with consistent effort, focused goals, disciplined behaviour transforms aspiration into actionable steps. It equips individuals with steady and deliberate success by navigating the obstacles.
  • Cascading goals seamlessly fit with goal-setting theory. It develops a good understanding and deeper connection with the goals to ensure consistent progress. It looks forward to fostering achievement motivation as well as performance. In this process an individual passes through contemplation to maintain a clear sense of goal.

These forces are dynamic and interconnected. Forces are representing a unique chronology in fostering achievement motivation. Each force is complete and sufficient on its own to navigate oneself with motivation. When they are more than one, they have cumulative effect, when all are simultaneously present, exhibit a unique combination of competencies which drag the individual to achieve the goal.

  1. Philosophical Underpinnings of Achievement Motivation

The concept of achievement motivation is well fitted to the famous quote by Swami Vivekanand “arise, awake and stop not, until the goal is reached” (Vivekanand, 1896). It encourages the individual to indulge in the pursuit of knowledge, wisdom and purpose of life. In achieving all these, achievement motivation is crucial which refers to the drive to pursue goals, deal with challenges and achieve success. It is worth noting that the Indian Vedic philosophies comprehensively underscore the attainment of ultimate goal which keeps synchrony with the notion of achievement motivation. The achievement motivation is being examined here through the lens of Shad-Darshana: Nyaya, Vaisesika, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta Darshana. After thorough screening and evaluation, essence of each Darshana and relevant Sutras are analysed and described below to explore the nuances of achievement motivation.

3.1 Nyaya Darshan: Key Text and Commentaries

Nyaya Darshana pertaining to the sources of knowledge, was founded by sage Gautama. It classifies the knowledge as valid and invalid. Valid knowledge comprises perception, inference, comparison and verbal testimony and invalid knowledge is memory, doubt, error and tarka. Nyaya philosophy emphasises on strong desire to destroy sorrows and sufferings for pursuit of knowledge and truth which motivate to develop valid knowledge. The concept of Nyaya philosophy is based on: Tarkavidya (science of reasoning); pramanashastra (science of right knowledge and epistemology); hetuvidya (science of causes); vadavidya (science of debate); and anviksiki (science of systematic inquiry and critical study). Nyaya philosophy considers liberation as the highest goal of human life which can be attained through valid knowledge. After thorough study of the literature of Nyaya Darshana, the following sutras are found most related and useful to describe achievement motivation:

Means of right knowledge (pramana), object of right knowledge (prameya), doubt (samsaya), purpose (prayojana), familiar instance, (drstanta), established tenet (siddhanta), members (avayava), confutation (tarka), ascertainment (nirnaya), discussion (vada), wrangling (jalpa), cavil (vitanda), fallacy (hetvabhasa), quibble (chala), futility (jati), and occasion for rebuke (nigrahasthana). (Vidyabhusana 1913, Book I, Ch. I, p.1)

Gautama enumerates sixteen substances to develop the understanding of the things to be adopted and things to be abandoned for the attainment of supreme felicity through valid knowledge.

Ichchha (Desire), Dvesha (aversion), Prayatna (volition), sukha (pleasure), duhkha (pain) and jnana (intelligence). (Vidyabhusana 1913, Book I, Ch. I, p.5)

These qualities are the marks of the soul.

Pravrttih (activity), vaak (voice), buddhi (mind), sharirah (body). Aarambh (begin).

Vidyabhusana states “activity is that which makes the voice, mind and body begin their action”. It happens with the collaboration of vocal, mental and bodily action which may be good or bad. The good actions are fit to be adopted and the bad actions are fit to be abandoned. (Vidyabhusana 1913, Book I, Ch. I, p.6)

Yamartham (for which reason), Adhikritya (authority), pravartate (proceed), tat (that), prayojanam (purpose).

According to Gautama, “Purpose is that with an eye to which one proceeds to act. It refers to the thing which one endeavours to attain or avoid”. (Vidyabhusana 1913, Book I, Ch. I, p.8)

These Sutras are focused on attaining the supreme felicity through valid knowledge by highlighting the qualities of soul and promoting the collaboration of action depending upon voice, mind and body. Valid knowledge encourages individuals for hard work for a purposeful act.

3.2 Vaisheshik Darshan: Key Text and Commentaries

The Vasesika is derived from the word ‘visesa’ which means ‘particularity with reference to reality’. The philosophy of Vaisesika is founded by sage Kanada which is based on atomism and metaphysics. It categorises the object of experience as Padartha including substance (dravya), quality (guna), action (karma), generality (samanya), particularity (vishesa), inherence (samavaya) and later on, added non-being (abhava) as the 7th category. According to Vaishesika school, valid sources of knowledge are perception and inference. It draws attention to understanding the constituents (nature and composition) of the physical universe and its interaction. Here, focusing on following Sutras found most relevant to achievement motivation through understanding the objects of experience and constituents of the physical universe.

Atha (now), Atah (therefore), Dharmmam (religion), Vyakhyasyamah (we shall explain).

“Dharma is the goal of entire human life, laws and rules, civilization, culture and literature”. It can be derived that Dharma is the art of living which leads to the purification of mind. The one who follows Dharma, strives for knowledge and acts upon attaining the goals. Veda says: “They come to thirst after knowledge by the performance of sacrifices,”. And Smriti also says, “knowledge is produced after demerits or dark deeds have been destroyed by good acts.” (Basu 1923, Kanada Sutras I, Ch. 1, p.3)

Atma-semyoga-prayatnabhyam (by means of conjunction with, and volition of, the soul), Haste (in the hand), Karmma (action).

“Action in hand is produced by means of conjunction with, and volition, of the soul”. It describes the action as a combinative cause resulted by means of conjunction with and volition of the soul. The ‘conjunction with the soul’ exercising volition is a non-combinative cause and ‘volition’ is an efficient and conditional cause. In this Sutra, ‘in the hands’, is an illustration which is described as:

Atmajanya (self-generated), Bhavet (it will be), Ichchha (desire), Ichchhajanya (produce by desire), Bhavet (maybe), kritih (the action), Kritijanya (caused by the act), Bhavechcheshta (it should be an effort), Tajjyatyaiv (that’s what it is), Kriya (action) (Basu 1923, Kanada Sutras V, Ch. 1, p.151)

It represents a sequential procedure to produce an action in which the soul is the initiator which produces desire. Desire produces impulse, impulse produces muscular motion, and this motion produces the action. This signifies that our deeds are the reflection of our soul.

Drista-adrista-prayojananam (of which the motives are visible and invisible), Drista-abhave (where no visible motive exists), Prayojanam (motive), Abhyudayaya (for the purpose of exaltation or knowledge of reality).

“(Of actions) of which the motives are visible and invisible, the motive, where no visible (motive) exists, (tends) to exaltation.” Sinha describes this Sutra categorises visible and invisible motives of action. Visible motives consist of substantial services and other tasks while invisible motives are sacrifice, charity, brahmacharya or celibacy and devotion to learning etc. In the absence of a visible object, an invisible object is supposed to be conducive to exaltation. Exaltation is the spiritual intuition of the self if produced by Yoga and is heaven if produced by sacrifice and charity etc. It leads to the knowledge of reality or truth. (Basu 1923, Kanada Sutras VI, Ch. 2, p.184)

Bhava-dosah (defect of feeling, impurity of emotion or of the soul), Upadha (that which is placed, or settles, upon or near anything, Impurity), Adosah (non-defect), Anupadha (Purity of emotion, or of the soul).

Vaisesika describes impurities and purity of soul. Impurities are feeling, desire, attraction, inattention, unfaith etc. Purity of the soul is in faith, complacence of mind, perseverance in the performance of prescribed actions, certitude and determination of what should be done in a particular situation (presence of mind). (Basu 1923, Kanada Sutras V, Ch. 2, p.186)

Vaisesika Sutras delineate Dharma or duty which can be achieved after destroying the dark deeds by good acts through following laws, rules, civilization and culture. This keeps us motivated to strive for knowledge and leads to purification of mind and soul. Purity of mind and soul initiates the sequential procedure to produce an action guided by visible or invisible motives. The invisible motives tend to exaltation.

3.3 Samkhya Darshan: Key Text and Commentaries

Samkhya is a Sanskrit word derived from Khya (make known or name) and Sam (together). It is attributed to Kapila based on dualistic theory viz. Puruṣa: the consciousness or the spirit and Prakṛti: the nature or matter or unconsciousness, including the human mind and emotions. Creation is the result of the conjunction of purusa and prakriti. Purusa are unchangeable, inactive and conscious whereas prakriti is changeable, active and unconscious. Prakriti comprises three qualities sattva (essence), the principle of light, goodness and intelligence, rajas (dust) is the principle of change, energy and passion, while tamas (darkness) appears as inactivity, dullness, heaviness and despair. The dualistic nature of Saṃkhya emphasizes on foundation for attaining liberation by realizing the distinction between Purusha and Prakriti. The Sutras related to achievement motivation are mentioned below:

Priti-apriti-visada-atmakah (of the nature of pleasure, pain and dullness), Prakasa-pravritti-niyama-arthah (adapted to serving the purpose of, or capable of causing, illumination, activity, and, restraint), Anya-anya-abhibhava-asraya-janana-mithuna-vrittayah (having mutual domination, dependence, production, consociation, and co-existence. Vachaspati does not consider the term Vritti as a distinct condition; he interprets it as Kriya, act, operation or function, and compounds it with each of the foregoing terms), Gunah (the Gunas).

“The Gunas possess the nature of pleasure, pain and dullness; serve the purpose of illumination, activity, and restraint; and perform the function of mutual domination, dependence, production, and consociation.” (Basu 1915, Samkhya-Karika, pp. 11-12)

Adhyavasayah (Ascertainment), Buddhih (Mahat, Buddhi), Dharmah (virtue, merit), Jnanam (knowledge), Viragah (dispassion), Aisvaryam (lordliness, power), Sattvikam (partaking of Sattva), Etatarupam (its forms), Tamasam (partaking of Tamas), Asmat (from this), Viparyastam (the reverse).

“Ascertainment is Buddhi. Virtue, knowledge, dispassion and power are its forms or manifestations, partaking of Sattva. Those partaking of Tamas, are the reverse of these.” (Basu 1915, Samkhya-Karika, p.22)

Ubhaya-atmakam (possessing the nature of both, i.e. Indriyas of cognition and of action), Atra (herein, in the set of Indriyas), Manah (manas), Sankalpakam (that which forms a complete idea, by means of assimilation and differentiation; reflective; deliberative; combinative), Indriyam (indriya), Cha (as well), Sadharmyat (from homogeneousness), Guna-parinama-visesat (from differences in the transformation of the Gunas), Nana-tvam (manifoldness; variety; diverseness), Bahya-bhedah (external diversities), Cha (and). (Basu 1915, Samkhya-Karika, p.25)

Manas possesses the nature of Indriya of cognition as well as Indriya of action. The variety of the senses is due to the external diversities by differences in the transformation of the Gunas.

The Sutras in Samkhya Darshana encompasses three gunas sattva, rajas and tamas focusing on pleasure, pain and dullness respectively. In which sattva leads to develop strength and drag the individual to ascertainment. Sankhya also focuses on Manas, the Indriya of cognition and action, which shapes the complete idea by means of assimilation and differentiation.

3.4 Yoga Darshan: Key Text and Commentaries

Maharshi Patanjali is the founder of yoga sutras, emphasising yoga is important for human consciousness.  It is a combination of the individual self (Atman) and the universal consciousness (Brahman or Purusha).  The text of Yoga darshan outlines the eightfold path namely Yama (Ethical Restraints); Niyama (Personal Observances); Asana (Physical Postures); Pranayama (Breath Control); Pratyahara (Withdrawal of the Senses); Dharana (Concentration); Dhyana (Meditation); Samadhi (Enlightenment or Bliss) for self-realization and attaining unity with universal consciousness. These sequential pathways offer step-by-step guidance for personal transformation and inner peace in achieving self-realization and liberation. The practice of yoga also serves to improve the quality of events of life by promoting mental clarity, physical health and spiritual growth. The relevant Sutras from Yoga Darshana with reference to achievement motivation are following:

Yogah (process of yoking; union), citta (consciousness), vritti (patterning, turnings, movements), nirodhah (stilling, cessation, restriction).

“Yoga is to still the patterning of consciousness.” By Yoga we learn to control the mind. (Hartranft, 2003)

Tatra (in that), sthitau (stability, steadiness), yatnah (sustained effort), abhyâsah (practice, action, method).

“Practice is the sustained effort to rest in that stillness.” Stability comes after continuous practice. (Hartranft, 2003)

Sa (this), tu (and, moreover), dirgha (long), kala (time), nairantarya (continuously, uninterruptedly), satkara (skillfully, in the right way) asevitah (cultivated), dridha (firmly), bhumih (rooted, grounded).

“And this practice becomes firmly rooted when it is cultivated skilfully and continuously for a long time.” (Hartranft, 2003)

Vitarka (analytical thinking), vichara (insight, reflection), ananda (bliss, joy,) Asmita (sense of self, I-am-ness), rupa (form), anugamat (going with, following, accompanying), samprajnatah (cognitive).

“At first, the stilling process is accompanied by four kinds of cognition: analytical thinking, insight, bliss, or feeling like a self.” (Hartranft, 2003)

Tasya (of this, that), bhumisu (stage), viniyogah (progression, application)

“Perfect discipline is mastered in stages.” (Hartranft, 2003)

Balesu (powers, strengths), hasti (elephant), bala (powers, strengths), adini (and the others, et cetera).

“Focusing with perfect discipline on the powers of an elephant, or other entities, one acquires those powers.” Perfect discipline drags the individual to grace with the great powers viz. potential, energy, enthusiasm and dedication. These greatest mental power meets with concentration and consistent practice to achieve the goals. (Hartranft, 2003)

The Yoga Sutras enforce consciousness by controlling and stabilising the mind. This stability comes after sustained practice. Practice for a long time improves skills gradually that develops the cognition of feeling like a self, bliss, insight and analytical thinking. In this sequence, perfect discipline is the key to drag the individual to grace with the great powers to achieve the desired goal.

3.5 Mimansa Darshan: Key Text and Commentaries

Mimansa Darshana was founded by sage Jamini. It is a Sanskrit word meaning ‘critical investigation’ which refers to a tradition of contemplation. Mimansa is known as Purva Mimansa as it is based on the interpretation of earlier Vedic texts and as Karma Mimansa as it focuses on ritual action (karma) and ethical duties. It is concerned with the motivation of individuals to attain the highest. It accepts the perception, inference and verbal testimony as the means of valid knowledge which acts as the motivating force to the correct performance of an action for obtaining liberation. In view of the principles of Karma with achievement motivation, the following relevant Sutras has been added:

Bhavarthah (indicative of bhavanas), Karmasabdah (verbs), Tebhyah (from these), Kriya (Apurva; unprecedented), Pratiyeta (is known), Esa (this), Hi (because), Arthah (object, fact), Vidhiyate (is laid down). (Mahamahopadhyay 1979, Purva-Mimansa-Sutras, Adhyaya II, p.126)

Actions that denote the senses bring about the cognition of the accomplishment of the unprecedented because the particular fact that one should accomplish heaven by means of the sacrifice is laid down by these.

Karmani (actions), Api (also), Jaminih (says Jaimini), Phalarthatvat (on account of being for the sake of the result), Phalancha (the result also), Purusarthatvat (because it is for the sake of the agent), Purusascha (the agent also), Karmarthatvat (on account of being for the sake of action).

“Jamini says that actions also are subsidiaries because they are for the sake of the result; the result also can be subsidiary because it is for the sake of the agent; and lastly agent also is subsidiary because he is for the sake of the action.” (Mahamahopadhyay 1979, Purva-Mimansa-Sutras, Adhyaya III, p.290)

Arthalopat (on account of the absence of a useful purpose), Akarma (no action), Syat (would be)

“By being separated from a useful purpose it would no longer be an action. There would be the danger of ceasing to be an action, that is, ceasing to be performed at all.” (Mahamahopadhyay 1979, Purva-Mimansa-Sutras, Adhyaya III, p.294)

Purva Mimansa emphasises on performing actions for the accomplishment of unprecedented goals which can be achieved by sacrifices. Mimansa states that action, person and result are subsidiaries to one another and exhibits an intricate relationship to obtain the purpose. Action without purpose is in vain, it would be in danger of ceasing the action.

3.6 Vedanta Darshana: Key Text and Commentaries

The Vedanta Darshana also known as Uttara Mimansa means ‘end of the Vedas’ or ‘conclusion of the Vedas’. It encompasses the ideas that originated from interpretations and speculations of Upanishads. Prasthanatrayi, a common group of texts including the three sources: the Upnishads, the Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita, from which the key text of Vedanta Darshana constituted. Vedanta possesses the relationship between individual soul (Atman) and ultimate reality (Brahman). It aims to attain self-realization and ultimate liberation. The Sub-schools of Vedanta Darshana are Advaita (non-dualism), Dvaita (dualism), Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism). The following relevant Sutras of achievement motivation are included:

Vijnanam (knowledge), Yajyam (sacrifices), Tanute (extend), Karmmani (the action), tanute-api (even if it stretches), Cha (and)

“Intelligence: that is the intelligent person performs sacrifices and also performs all other actions.” (Majumdar 1926, Ch. II, sec-III, pp. 333)

Yatha (as), Cha (also), Taksa (a carpenter), Ubhayatha (both ways- sometimes on duty and at other times off duty).

Acharya Shankara has explained by using a carpenter’s situation who gets tired by working hard with his tools and gives up his work. After sometime he gets refreshed and feels at ease. The same situation has been explained in the case of individual souls entangled with dualistic ideas of responsibility and fortune building. By shaking off dualistic ideas, the individual soul performs as Brahma. (Majumdar 1926, Ch. II, sec-III, pp. 336)

Atah (therefore), Prabodhah (awaking), Asmat (from that, from the universal soul).

The waking from deep sleep takes place when the individual soul returns to consciousness from the universal soul. (Majumdar 1926, Ch. III, sec-II, p. 435)

Darsanat (as it is found to be so), Cha (also)

Nimbarkacharya described that two individuals may have similarities at some points. For instance, he compares youth with lions in respect of the lion’s strength and courage. It illuminates the spiritual potential through reflecting physical attributes. This potential exhibits energy and dynamism of individuals embarking on the journey of life. (Majumdar 1926, Ch. III, sec-II, p. 452)

 Pratisedhat (From the denial because of the denial), Cha (moreover)

“Moreover, the Universal Soul is not infected by the imperfections of the individual soul; because Sruti denies such infection” (Majumdar 1926, Ch. III, sec-II, p. 461). This is illustrated by following Sutra:

Suryo (the suns), Yatho (for example), Sarvvalokasya (of all world), Chakshurnam (the eyes are not), Lipyate (is covered), Chakshushairvahyadoshaih (visual and external faults), Ekastatha (one and the same), Sarvabhutantaratma (the innermost self of all beings), Na Lipyate (it is not covered), Lakhduhkhen (sorrow and sufferings), Vahyah (external).

“(As the sun, the eye of the individuals, does not become affected by visible impurities of external things though touching them through its rays; similarly, the One Universal Soul, who is the inner self of all beings, does not become affected by the sorrows and sufferings of individuals, as He is beyond them.)” (Majumdar 1926, Ch. III, sec-II, p. 461).

Upapatte (as it becomes reasonable), Cha (also).

The Brahma forms a link between the seeker and the goal sought for and indicates the goal as Brahma or ultimate knowledge. Brahma himself leads the seeker towards the goal. This signifies the motivation. (Majumdar 1926, Ch. III, sec-II, p. 466)

Anandadayah (blissfulness and other similar attributes), Pradhanasya (of the supreme spirit)

“Blissfulness and other similar attributes of the supreme spirit, such as pure consciousness, omniscience, omnipresence are to be culled together everywhere in the meditation of Brahma.” (Majumdar 1926, Ch. III, sec-III, p. 498)

Brahmavid (knowing the one Brahma), Apnotiparam (attains highest), Tad (that), Esa (this), Abhyukta (declared or uttered with reference to), Satyajnanam (truth knowledge), Anantam (infinity)

One who knows Brahma, attains the highest. In this respect it is said Brahma is Truth, Knowledge and Infinity. (Majumdar 1926, Ch. III, sec-III, pp. 504-505)

Vedanta Darshana inclines intelligence to perform actions and sacrifices by shaking off dualistic ideas. Awaking is fundamental in this process which promotes strength and courage. Vedanta posits that a pure mind is not affected by any difficulties and sufferings and leads the seeker towards the ultimate goal. For the attainment of ultimate goal pure consciousness, omniscience and omnipresence are to be culled together which assimilate the individual with the Brahma or ultimate reality.

It is worth noting that each philosophy of Shad-Darshana describes the similar ultimate aim of life, self-realization and liberation by following a different ideology. The important metaphysical, epistemic and ethical discussions are included in the summary of each philosophy. The discussions provide a comprehensive understanding of existence, knowledge and achievement motivation. In this part, Sutras incorporated are interconnected with all the facets of achievement motivation. It is observed that most of the Sutras from different philosophies share common bases for the teachings of a particular subject. Teachings from each Sutra has been thoroughly analysed to develop deeper understanding and further categorised. On the basis of categorisation, underlying principles have been derived in the context of achievement motivation.

 4. Underlying Principles of Shad-Darshana in Context to Achievement Motivation

The shades of achievement motivation are inherent in the entire shad-Darshana. Following principles have been coined by analyzing the Sutras and commentaries from each Darshana.

4.1 Belief in oneself: It is directly related to self-consciousness, self- efficacy and self-awareness. Samkhya states that senses perceive the materialistic world but are not sufficient to achieve the ultimate goal. Yoga describes consciousness as leading mental awareness to subtle awareness after perceiving the materialistic world. In the Vedanta Darshana, awakening from deep sleep is described in recognizing the true nature of consciousness. This develops confidence within an individual.

4.2 Strive for Accomplishment: Vaisesika Darshana explains the motives of action, the invisible one are sacrifice, charity, celibacy and devotion to learning which tend to exaltation. Purva Mimansa also describes the sacrifice of desires to achieve heaven. Yoga underlines that sustained practice sharpens the skills. Vedanta also notes that an intelligent person performs sacrifices to accomplish. In this way, the invisible motives, devotion and sustained practice drive oneself for continuous growth and prepare to compete for attaining highest.

4.3 Graced with powers: Vaisesika suggests to follow Dharma or duty which leads one to strive for knowledge by purification of mind after destroying the dark deeds. Samkhya focuses on inculcating ‘Sattva Gunas’ with the manifestation of virtue, knowledge, dispassion and power. It processes mental clarity. Yoga states the mental power as a stilling process viz. potential, energy, enthusiasm and dedication which reflects analytical thinking, insight, bliss and feeling like a self. These mental powers along with strength and courage develop the spiritual potential and exhibit energy and dynamism as aligned in Vedanta. All these contribute to a powerful synergy.

4.4 Recognition of Qualities of Soul: Nyaya Darshana enumerates desire, aversion, volition, pleasure, pain, intelligence as quality of soul. Vaisesika discusses purity of soul such as faith, complacence of mind, perseverance, certitude and determination. Some attributes like purpose of illumination, activity and restraint, mutual domination and consociation are listed by Sankhya Darshana. In this regard, Vedanta states that any negative factor including imperfection and sufferings will not infect the soul and strengthen the pure mindset. All these qualities engage the soul in the ongoing process of creative pursuits.

4.5 Voice-mind-body Interaction: Nyaya Darshana highlights that one performs action for the purpose or cause only which sets voice, mind and body to engage in action. The vocal, mental and bodily coordination regulates the action and leads to the actual goal. Purva Mimansa quotes that in the absence of a purpose there would be no action. Further, it states action, result and agent are subsidiaries to one another. Vaisesika accentuated action is a combinative cause resulting by means of conjunction with and volition of the soul, whereas means of conjunction with soul are non-combinative and volition of soul is conditional cause. It uncovers a sequential procedure initiated by the soul via desire, impulse, motion and resulting in action respectively. This indicates that action is guided by causes and effects and every cause is the coalesce of a variety of events.

4.6 Sustained Effort for Perfect Discipline: Discipline is known for mental stability, liberation and self-realization for which continuous practice is necessary. Yoga Darshana emphasizes on continuous practice for perfect discipline to attain complete mastery over oneself. Discipline signifies mental focus as Acharya Shankara explains in Vedanta to focus on a single task and shaking off dualistic ideas which leads to purification of mind as Vaisesika mentions. This contributes in strengthening a sense of unity for sustainable growth through focus on a settled and consistent mind.

4.7 Attainment of Ultimate Goal: Attainment of ultimate goal is central to various philosophies and their interpretations. Nyaya Darshana offers attainment of supreme felicity through valid knowledge, Vaisesika accepts as exaltation through sacrifice, Yoga reckons as spiritual intuition of self. Vedanta Darshana is about supreme spirits such as pure consciousness, omniscience, omnipresence. This indicates the ultimate goal as self-knowledge, self-realization and knowledge of reality. Through a variety of events such as awareness, discipline, resilience, perseverance and mindfulness, achievement motivation assimilates the individual with the ultimate goal.

These principles of Shad-Darshanas exhibit integration with the forces of achievement motivation that is further described under synergy between Shad-Darshana and achievement motivation by using figure 2.

5. Synergy between Shad-Darshana and Achievement Motivation

The principles of Shad-Darshana are derived in a unique perspective by describing the philosophies including Sutras, key text and commentaries with regards to achievement motivation. The teachings under the Sutras are analyzed thoroughly and the similar points from each Darshana are synthesized to derive the principles. The derived principles are showing unique combinations as each of the forces of achievement motivation are interrelated and interconnected to the principles of Shad-Darshana. The figure 2 depicts the synergy of 7 Cs of achievement motivation and deriving principles of Shad-Darshana which connects confidence with the ‘belief in oneself’; competition with the ‘strive for accomplishment’; capacity building with the ‘grace with powers’; creativity with the ‘recognition of qualities of soul’; causal characteristics with the ‘voice, mind, and body interaction’; consistency with the ‘sustained effort for perfect discipline’; and cascading goals with the ‘attainment of ultimate goal’.

(Figure 2: Synergy between Shad-Darshana and Achievement Motivation)

This connection and combination reflect the intricate relationship between principles of Shad-Darshana and achievement motivation. With this view, Shad-Darshana incorporates a comprehensive framework for achievement motivation which encourages to inculcate self-discipline, self-awareness, wisdom, inner strengths, purpose-driven actions, pursuit of truth, perseverance and resilience. These dimensions align a holistic approach for human pursuit of knowledge based on growth and self-discovery, integrated into educational practice to foster a deeper value-based achievement motivation empowering to pursue goals with integrity and resilience. This motivation not only provides instant rewards but also enlightens the path of education and learning. This synergy also exhibits the aspects of jnan (knowledge), vignan (science) and Jeevan Darshan (philosophy of life) which indicates experience, observation, experimentation and rigorous analysis that reflects the essence of Indian Knowledge System.

 6. Relevance of Underlying Principles of Shad-Darshana in context to achievement motivation with the recommendations of NEP 2020

Shad-Darshana offers insight to shape into well-rounded individuals and purposeful lives. Its teachings are considered as the rich foundation for educational growth and creation of a cultured society. Contemporary educational growth surrounds the holistic development of learners and inculcates them with the skills. Shad-Darshana provides the framework to enrich modern educational paradigms and achievement motivation indulged with many of the skills and capabilities. This is coincided with the recommendations of NEP 2020 envisions to shape the learners with rich legacies of Indian Ethos. It is targeted to inculcate knowledge, skills, values and disposition among learners by promoting psychological well-being as well as ignition of achievement motivation. Some of the strengthening mechanisms recommended as:

  • Instilling mental powers viz. discipline, critical thinking and ethical integrity,
  • Fostering self-knowledge, self-confidence, cooperation and integration,
  • Addressing the inclusive growth through positive social changes,
  • Promoting innovations through logics, reasoning and creation,
  • Encouraging the learners to strive for excellence.

7. Conclusion

Indian Knowledge System refers to a well-organized legendary system of knowledge prevailed in ancient undivided India which is famous for its rich culture of education. The Indian knowledge system evolved with the time since the beginning of human civilization, popularised gradually and practised with wide acceptability in the form of rituals, traditions, manuscripts, and sculptured literature. Some common ancient texts such as Vedas, Puranas, Shrimad Bhagwat Gita and Ramayana etc. were followed as means of knowledge. A bunch of knowledge is grouped in six shades of Vedic philosophies popularized as Shad-Darshana. The Shad-Darshana includes Nyaya, Vaisesika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimansa, and Vedanta which provides diverse but complementary viewpoints on the nature of reality (metaphysics), the nature of knowledge (epistemology), ethics (values), and the ultimate purpose of life. These philosophies encourage individuals to seek a harmonious balance between knowledge, ethical conduct, and spiritual fulfilment, as relevant today as were in ancient times. It offers guidance for both personal and social growth and attaining the highest goals desired by individuals. The researcher has rigorously gone through various theories of achievement motivation to develop a comprehensive and integrated understanding. Most relevant theories viz. expectancy-value theory, need for achievement theory, achievement goal theory, self-determination theory, attribution theory, mind-set theory and goal-setting theory are described and more nuanced observations of theories helped to coin 7C forces. Although, each theory is intermingled with various forces but also indicating the most suitable force which has been pointed as confidence, competition, capacity building, creativity, causal characteristics, consistency and cascading goals respectively. For the philosophical basis of achievement motivation, the texts of shad Darshana are contemplated to trace the most relevant sutras in context to achievement motivation. Each Darshana offers valuable insights into human motivation and ethical living which has been covered under the derived principles of Shad-Darshana. The principles including belief in oneself, strive for accomplishment, grace with powers, recognition of qualities of soul, voice, mind, and body interaction, sustained effort for perfect discipline and attainment of ultimate goal respectively mirrored synergy with the 7C forces of achievement motivation. The principles derived through the study are also relevant in terms of the current education system and the New Education Policy 2020 as both emphasize the common pathways of learning with ethical integrity.

The paper concludes that the shades of achievement motivation are dispersed throughout the teachings of Shad-Darshana. These teachings are equally effective in addressing present-day circumstances and in preparing to navigate future challenges. It is valuable and instrumental in achieving goals yet it makes a profound difference by providing guidance to tackle the hurdles of pathways. The recent plan and policies have renewed interest to integrate these teachings with its recommendations. NEP 2020 uncovers its educational framework with the teachings of Shad-Darshana and achievement motivation that draws attention to enrich physical harmony, mental powers, ethical conduct and social sensibility.

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