Introduction
Bhāratīya society has flourished and thrived for millennia despite the odds that it has faced along its course of history. With its foundation set deep in dharma, the life of those within Bhārata seems most natural, most harmonious, providing the most integrity; however, in the eyes of the world without, it appears queer and perplexing.
The reason for this phenomenon is because of the difference in the philosophical foundation between Bhāratīya culture and the other cultures. Be it science, society and polity or the arts, there is an obvious reflection of the philosophical approach taken. This philosophy is also reflected in the system or method of education. Outcomes determine whether the system has functioned in the interest of overall well-being of the society or not. Ideally, this must help in reviewing the philosophy that was originally used in a way that society is strengthened. Functioning thus, Bhāratīya society has made dharma its foundation.
Dharma is the crux of the puruṣārthas; dharma guides artha and kāma in the Bhāratīya context; mokṣa is impossible without aligning with dharma. Dharma is what guides and channelises every aspect of life in this culture. It is also well known here that a life without dharma will cause humans to lose their way in the wilderness of chaos and lead to the downfall of the entire species and, in the process, even other forms of creation.
Hitopadeśa:
आहार निद्रा भय मैथुनं च सामान्यमेतत् पशुभिर्नराणाम् |
धर्मो हि तेषामधिको विशेष: धर्मेण हीनाः पशुभिः समानाः ||
āhāra nidrā bhaya maithunam ca sāmānyametat paśubhirnarāṇām
dharmo hi teṣāmadhiko viśeṣah dharmeṇa hīnāh paśubhih samānāh
which means –
Consumption of food, sleep, fear (survival instincts) and reproduction are the activities in which there is no difference between humans and animals. Only adherence to dharma makes man distinct from other beings; without dharma, a man is as good as any other animal.
Therefore, knowledge of dharma is considered the most important education of all, and the core of this knowledge is self-sacrifice and annihilation of the ego.
Down the ages, Bhāratīya society has encouraged the spread of dhārmik knowledge in every manner possible. That which is received from the cosmos by the ṛṣis is registered as the Vedas; the knowledge present within the Vedas is taken to people as Upaniṣads and Vedānta, condensed into the Brahmasūtras, sung as the Bhagavad Gītā; made into injunction of life through Dharmaśāstras; draws the attention of humans to worship the infinite magnificence of creation and the unfathomable grace of the Creator through the Purāṇas; gets into the practical application aspects for the relative ease of human beings through the Itihāsas.
Based on the puruṣārthas, this knowledge which helped in sustenance and took one towards liberation was made so attractive and easily available that even simple people could attain it. In this way, even the humblest and least literate of the society can obtain the knowledge present within the Vedas through knowledge of the itihāsas, purāṇas and by leading life as per the dharmaśāstras. Therefore, knowledge of the dharmaśāstras, itihāsas and (the locally relevant) purāṇa(s) was important for every member of the society to have.
Moreover, the contrast between the kind of knowledge that must be desired versus the kind of knowledge that is meant merely for survival is also laid out as expressed below.
Viṣṇu Purāṇa:
तत् कर्म यत् न बन्धाय सा विद्या या विमुक्तये |
आयासाय अपरं कर्म विद्या अन्या शिल्पनैपुणम् ||
tat karma yat na bandhāya sā vidyā yā vimuktaye
āyāsāya aparam karma vidyā anyā śilpanaipuṇam
which means –
That which does not bind is karma, that which is liberating is knowledge; all other forms of work are merely for survival, all other forms of knowledge are only skill enhancement.
Therefore, it was understood that knowledge of dharma was paramount for a human being to function well in society.
Imparting dharma is not an academic activity. It requires the tact of communicating the gross and subtle truths in a manner that members of society can relate to and integrate into their lives. Such tact was an art, to take this knowledge to the people was taken as their duty by artists.
The Value of Art
The unique brain capacity of the human being gives it abundant scope to be used in multiple ways. While on the one side it is utilized to make sense of the world around him, on the other, there is a deep desire to appreciate and enjoy creation in all its glory. The left hemisphere is the rationalising part while the right hemisphere is the emotionally active part. Thus, evolutionarily, we have the two parts of the brain working together with their distinct capabilities. Activating the right side of the brain that appreciates or indulges in the arts, it has been found, helps to maintain emotional equilibrium. When it comes to life experiences or lessons, stories are perhaps the best form of learning as imagery is the best way to understand, retain and recall any content. Music is registered and recalled in many different ways compared to speech; the latter is processed in the left hemisphere while music is processed in the right hemisphere. Even in conditions of severe memory loss, it is found that previously heard music tends to be recognised much more readily than speech. Music is also a perfect medium for bhakti which is a transcendent form of emotion. Theatre and drama – which include narration, dialogue, music, dance and visual effects – have a telling effect on the psyche of the people; the more shared the situations and emotions are, the greater will be the impact on the mind of the audience.
The arts of Bhārata include drawing, painting, weaving, sculpting, dance, music, theatre, storytelling, puppetry and many other forms. A majority of these art forms have depended heavily on itihāsas and purāṇas as their theme of work. A large number of these are found embedded in the temple environment and its associated ecosystems. In so many forms, dhārmik ideas were kept alive in the collective memory of the society.
Of these, the contribution of performing arts cannot be overemphasised as they help to take knowledge of dharma to the remotest villages on the land. These arts were fine-tuned down the years and many pedagogical tools were incorporated to make them more engaging for individuals of all kinds, more effective in maintaining social order while providing high-quality experience for the audience. This was so until the latter part of the twentieth century. The situation today looks very different. Several extant Cultural Traditions that live amidst us as non-academic and folk traditions that survived all odds over centuries are endangered owing to multiple reasons. Notwithstanding the contemporary reality, wherever performed, the arts continue to deliver high quality content to the least literate population even today.
This paper’s aim is to show the importance of teru kūttu as an important knowledge channel with highly effective pedagogies of education; in certainty, its absence would cause losses that are not compensated for in the present state of things. The paper has extracted as many pedagogical practices as the author could glean from the meaningful artform. By referring to earlier published research works in related topics, the author has brought out pedagogies that are missing in those research works.
Artists and Artform Chosen: Teru Kūttu
Teru kūttu (street play) is an ancient artform which has evolved from theatre artforms that existed during the Saṅgam period in Tamiḷ Nadu. The specific form that is studied by the author is called Bhārata kūttu which is mostly performed in the northern districts of Tamiḷ Nadu. It involves a troupe performing episodes from the Mahabhārata from late evening through the night until dawn for the entire duration of a village temple festival that may last between 12 to 21 days. Sometimes, they perform at shorter festivals and special occasions. Nowadays, to meet the changing needs of the audience, the performance is also done in condensed versions over fewer hours. The troupe typically has 20 to 25 members and includes actors, narrator, singers and musicians. The performance is in the open air on a short wooden stage or in a specific space on the ground. The audiences watch by sitting, standing or lounging at their own convenience.
Traditional rural art performances are entertained only if they are of high quality. This is irrespective of the backgrounds in which they perform, which may vary from a remote village to a well-connected urban setting. The quality of performance is a reflection of evolution of the artform over the centuries. It is also a reflection of the expectations of the audience which they seek to fulfil. Such an expectation was witnessed first-hand by the author: The author personally witnessed the teru kūttu and Harikathā kālakṣepam performances at Nallan Pillai Petral, a village situated about 50 km from the city of Chennai, where the 21-day-long festival at the Draupadī Amman temple was held in June 2023. The villagers replaced the Harikathā kālakṣepam performer who had been invited initially as the people were unhappy with his performance. Noteworthy is that the artist’s picture and name had been printed on the invitation! On the second day, they had brought in another performer who fulfilled their expectations. Such expectation by the people reflects the richness of their experience, which depends on the quality of delivery of content by the performers. This holds significance in the light of the fact that the assessment of the artists by the people does not involve asking for paper degrees or an endorsement by a brand name (like a university or a college). The artforms are learnt through the Guru-Śiṣya Paramparā and the only endorsement is by the Guru. The tools of delivery that people expect, we may understand, are pedagogical tools.
The author interviewed the artists and the villagers to get perspectives from their side. This apart, many recorded teru kūttu sessions were watched to get clarity on the artform.
Pedagogy
As far as teru kūttu is concerned, there are two sides to look for pedagogies: first, in the artists’ learning and training process and, second, when the artists take learning to the audience.
The author made attempts to view the art with eyes set on a blank slate and then find out if what was gleaned had been previously documented. There is very limited research content available as far as this artform is concerned and it is found that several distinctly Bhāratīya pedagogical tools employed have not been documented until now as part of this and of other artforms that may employ them. Thus, the pedagogies under each of the two sides are listed below as a) previously-known and understood and b) lesser-known and largely overlooked.
I. Pedagogies that are present in the artists’ learning process
a) Some of the previously-known and understood pedagogies which may also be used by other theatre or performance artforms as documented by Rajaravivarma are listed below.
- Studying and Memorising
The teru kūttu artists study itihāsa and purāṇa texts along with the scripts in Tamiḻ. Along with these, it is essential for them to also study vast volumes of other texts containing Tamiḻ literature and dharmaśāstras and stay abreast of the social transformations and current news. All these are to be subject to memory to be retrieved contextually during the performance. Disciplined training (Anuśāsana) is taken very seriously by those who aspire to become teru kūttu artists.
- Voice Training: Diction and Music
Pronunciation and clarity of speech are important for the teru kūttu artists. Diction training by humming, repeating words and phrases and sounds is done.
The artist also must learn to sing the parts of the content that are lyricized. Their singing has specific rhythm and tune for each emotion which do not have written notation. All these are learnt merely by listening and repeating.
Breathing exercises, correct posture which are ways to ‘open the lungs’ are practiced so that they are able to amplify their voice in order to perform in vast open spaces with no acoustic support.
- Emoting
The performers have to reveal the nature and emotion of the character as they narrate and enact their roles. These nuances are learned by understanding the rasas (sentiments). Teru kūttu artists produce exaggerated facial and body expressions to show emotions and feelings and the training for these is distinct. Training of movements of the eyes and other parts of the face, body movement are all learned by the artists by observing and practicing.
- Movement Training: Dance and Agility
Teru kūttu artists have to learn dancing to go along with their stage acting. This includes specific kinds of steps, walking, running, leaping and twirling. Each of these have specific techniques by which they are learnt.
- Training on Musical Instruments
The style of playing of the instruments for the specific artform has to be learnt and practiced by the artists. The abilities include such things such as playing music that accompany announcements, defining the transition points of the drama, defining the pace of the scene, adding to the emotions and so on.
b) The following are lesser-known and largely overlooked points which are integral to effective learning processes. Though some are not very direct, they are systematically adopted by the performers of the artforms as they are instrumental in the learning process. As pedagogy essentially means learning aids, these are included.
- Submission to the Guru and to the Higher Powers (Vinaya)
This is a common thread that runs across all forms of learning that come under the vast sky of dharma. Submission to the Almighty and to the Guru is a pedagogical tool. This helps in the learner setting aside the notion that they are the performer and place their faith that through the guidance of the Guru, they may succeed in letting the Higher Power that epitomises the art to flow through them. They treat themselves as mere instruments for the Divine to flow through. Humility (Vinaya) has been repeatedly found to be the key to growth.
- Structured Regular Learning
There is a clear start to the session – a prayer to the almighty, to their Guru and to their artform and the objects – such as books, props etc. – that they use for the artform, followed by a revision of what they have studied thus far, studying (adhyāyana), practice (abhyāsa) for as long as they have to pursue and it concludes with prayerful obeisance to all relevant people and things.
Structured learning (Kārya Paddhati) brings focus and clarity to the learning session. It becomes easier for the students to relate to, grasp and retain the exact content that they studied due to the framework given to the time period. This has been found scientifically valid especially for Self-Directed Learning. The ceremonious (Anuṣṭhāna) nature of training sessions also builds humility. This causes the bar to be set higher for themselves. This, in turn, helps to build on quality.
When an individual has advanced enough, they stay in touch with their abilities by guiding others.
- Stamina building
The artists perform for long hours in outdoor environments without climate control. Many of them stay in temporary shelters during their performance days. Stamina building is done by maintaining physical discipline, food and exercise. These aid learning of all kinds.
- On the field ‘hands-on’ training
The artists accompany the seniors on the field. They begin by observing, then by taking on small parts or roles and gradually grow into accomplished artists.
- DNA
Between nature and nurture, we find that the inherent presence of an ability or tendency is an advantage that can be nurtured way more easily than otherwise. The likelihood of tendency being present is relatively higher when the DNA supports it. In a good majority of cases (though not exclusive), we find that these arts are preserved and performed as family traditions.
II. Pedagogies present as the artists take the arts to the audience
a) Again, well-understood pedagogies which may already be recognised and may also be used in other artforms are listed first.
- Objective Setting
The performers have a clear objective to accomplish for the session. This kind of planning helps in managing time and to gather the focus of the audience to specific episodes and their related content.
Yet again, there is a kārya paddhati that is followed which define the different parts of the performance session. The use of instruments to make an entry, the prayerful announcement made by the kaṭṭiyakkāran (anchor) in teru kūttu and the distinct use of phrases and greetings by the performer draw the attention of the people letting them know that the session has begun. Similarly, the end of the session is also clearly conveyed by maṅgaḷam chanting which the audience is familiar with.
- Ambience Setting: sensory connect
The stage is set. The make-up is done ceremoniously in the presence of the deity that the troupe worships. The face is made-up with the use of different coloured paint with the colours carrying specific depictions. Some characters wear masks, head gear, fake hair, moustaches and beards of different kinds. The actors in the troupe don different costumes. Men also don the costumes to play female and transgender characters. The costume and make-up are such that they evoke certain response emotions in the audience. Heavy anklets (salaṅgai/ghuṅgrū) that produce sound with each step that the character takes are worn by the main performer(s).
- Visual and Auditory Media: greater audience reach
Teru kūttu is a powerful art that uses multiple media which facilitate visual and auditory experiences. Narrating, dialogue speaking, singing, instrument playing, dancing, acrobatic moves, costumes and make-up, props and instruments are used.
Variation in tone and volume of voice help in enhancing the auditory experience and ensure that the listening apparatus of the audience is kept alert. Microphones are used and yet, since the performances are usually in the open where loss of audio tends to be high, the performers use high volumes and deep modulations to add emphasis to their narration or script delivery.
All these facilitate good reach to audiences having a wide range of literacy and comprehension abilities.
- Use of multiple layers in narration: comparison and contrast
In the artform of teru kūttu, the story narration is far from linear and straight-forward. The performer often brings in comparisons with other characters or with similar situations from the itihāsas or the purāṇas. News from contemporary times may also be used to highlight a situation or a character. Sometimes the element of contrast is used to enhance understanding of the primary story being narrated. Such layering in narration leads people to interpolate one situation to another and draw relative meaning to understand situations and happenings in their own lives on this basis. These examples may be to encourage them to or to deter them from adopting certain practices in life.
Teru kūttu also has a smattering of socially relevant messages that are connected to the main story that is being enacted. The kaṭṭiyakkāran and the actors don alternate roles to enact these scenes which take messages of social and individual discipline – such as respectful treatment of women, abstinence from vices, social reforms and so on – to lead a dhārmik life. The dramatisation is strong and impactful and usually contains much humour and may even border on the macabre such as dragging women characters by the hair and whipping of those playing the role of committing crime against dharma.
- Role played by the kaṭṭiyakkāran (sūtradhār)
The kaṭṭiyakkāran plays a pivotal role in teru kūttu and literally guides the entire session forward. He takes on the role of the narrator, the jester, the one who fills in on missing information, is the conversationalist with the primary characters of the play and, occasionally, interacts with the audience. He is expected to be on his toes all the time and provide much needed breaks by way of interjecting with quips and jokes, and thereby bring some relief to situations that could otherwise turn emotionally intense.
For the performer to directly interact with the audience might not result in being able to convey a message, so they interact with the kaṭṭiyakkāran who now talks on behalf of the audience. This helps to convey the message clearly and very effectively.
- ‘Alienation Effect’
The theory of ‘alienation effect’ was used in Russian Drama by Bertolt Brecht. M. Kumar shows how this effect is used in teru kūttu for centuries.
At the same time, there are situations where the audience needs to be reminded that the character seen on stage is merely a role taken up by the performer and not the actual character. This distances the audience from the emotional build-up that they may have for the character. This is especially required when there is a need for some intellectual introspection required towards individual or social reform and improvement. Social needs, news items, jokes and narratives have to be brought out that add contemporary flavour to the ancient core content and this is done by disrupting the emotional build up through the process of alienation.
When the scene of ‘Draupadī thuyil urital’ (disrobing) is being enacted, the audience knows that Duhśāsana will ill-treat and try to disrobe Draupadī, the kaṭṭiyakkāran and other actors step in as common people and enact a contemporary scene where a man attempts to misbehave with a woman by making indecent advances despite her loud objections. During this time, the kaṭṭiyakkāran says, “Draupadi was put to shame in front of all. Such a situation must not come to any woman. We must protect our women. Even if she is your wife, you must not misbehave with her. We will whip those who misbehave with women.” The one who is found misbehaving in the scene just enacted is whip-lashed several times. This act reminds the audience that the one donning the role of Duhśāsana is merely an actor and would very much behave as per the diktats of dharma. This also causes the audience to release the emotion built up against him and remember that he is merely an actor.
- Improvisation and Humour
The kaṭṭiyakkāran as well as the actors have to improvise their performance based on the situation that may arise. Humour is a very important pedagogical element which keeps the audience interested and alert.
- Reinforcement by Repetition
Traditionally the plays are repeated to the same audience over the years. This helps people to remember and the successive generations to gain from knowing these stories.
- Here are some pedagogical points that are not found in other research works of teru kūttu. ‘Evanescence’
The objective of performances such as teru kūttu, Harikathā kālakṣepam, bhajan singing and so on is to reinforce dharma by inculcating bhakti in the minds of people. This is possible only when one is conscious that one’s ego stands in the way of evolution. The presence of the Higher Power(s) as against helpless mortals who can do nothing by themselves is indicated by the performer by ‘evanescing’ and treating themselves as merely one among the audience who is just a medium. This is done irrespective of the greatness or loftiness of the character that he is playing. The effect is termed as ‘evanescence’ by the author.
Evanescence is the performer causing his importance to ‘fade’ or ‘evanesce’ and becoming one more member of the audience holding devotion (bhakti) for the Higher Power(s) for the purpose of turning the mind of the audience towards devotion (bhakti) for the deity being portrayed and is done in order to show the magnificence of the Higher Power(s) and the relative insignificance of the mortal human. In the case of teru kūttu, the performer may evanesce either by himself or is made to evanesce by a member of the troupe.
The story that is performed is one that has been performed and watched many times and the performers are aware of the emotions, sentiments and spiritual experiences of the audience irrespective of the character role that they are playing. Therefore, the performer must remind the audience of their own direct connection to the deity and that he is merely an instrument in the process.
In the case of the Draupadī Amman temple festival, the most intense scene is the Tuyil Urital (humiliation of Draupadī by disrobing her). Notably, the temple sanctum is closed on this night, which is usually not done during temple festivals. The one who is about to play the role of Duhśāsana pleads for forgiveness from Draupadī Amman for having to enact such a dastardly act and seeks redemption from the sin he is about to commit. The poignancy is telling upon the audience which realises that even to enact such a role in a drama is sinful. The process of evanescence imprints the deity’s importance on their minds. Despite the intensity of his performance which the actor accomplishes through rigorous training for many years, no credit is demanded by him.
Purvapaksha
M. Kumar includes the above scene as yet another example of Alienation Effect adopted in teru kūttu (Kumar, 2019, p. 8). The author disagrees with him.
Similarity between Alienation Effect and Evanescence: Both Alienation Effect and Evanescence are methods that aim at indicating something that is not really part of the theatrical act.
Method of Alienation Effect: Alienation involves the use of techniques designed to distance the audience from emotional involvement in the play through jolting reminders of the artificiality of the theatrical performance.
Considering the above definition, and applying to the specific scene mentioned above we see that –
- There is no emotional detachment from the play at this point, rather it is poignantly enhanced; the one who plays the character of Duhśāsana is (therefore) forgiven.
- The scene is not jolting, rather it is very tender.
- There is no artificiality in this part of the performance. It is real and fills the ambience as can be seen in the video.
The points in the following table show that the instance indicated from teru kūttu is not an example of Alienation Effect but, rather, one of Evanescence:
From the above, it is seen that the enactment does not fulfil the definition of Alienation Effect while it fulfils the definition of Evanescence.
Yet another instance of Evanescence in the teru kūttu witnessed is at the point when the performer playing the role of Krishna enters the scene, the kaṭṭiyakkāran looks at him, then turns to the audience and bows down reverentially to them, causing mirth and laughter. Another member of the troupe tells the kaṭṭiyakkāran that he is bowing by facing the wrong side, to which the kaṭṭiyakkāran says, “Where is Krishnan?” to which the troupe member indicates and says, “Krishnan is here.” Kaṭṭiyakkāran replies, “This is our Munisamy who is now wearing the costume of Krishnan. Why must I bow down to him? He borrowed 1200 rupees from me last week and has not yet returned it! (audience laughs) Where is Krishnan? He is in the hearts of the people here. He resides there. I am therefore bowing down to them.”
Thus, the actor who is playing the role of the lofty Krishna also evanesces into a mere mortal.
The emotions are kept alive but redirected from the actor to the character of Krishna that is being played by the actor. The role of the actor as being just a medium is highlighted. There is some amount of intellectual kindling but only to the extent of recalling their memory and blending this with their emotions to experience bhakti.
Similarly, in Harikathā kālakṣepam, while narrating the glories of the Higher Power(s), the performer consciously removes the importance that may be bestowed on them by evanescence. This effect is bound to be present in many performing traditions across Bhārata.
The Evanescing Effect needs recognition as a valid pedagogical tool to inculcate humility and bhakti.
Evanescence as a method is possible as an outcome of instilling Vinaya (I b) in the artist during his training. The crucial point of submission to the higher powers is reflected directly through both Vinaya and Evanescence.
Summary
The performing art traditions that take dharma to people through meaningful entertainment are found to have highly honed elements of pedagogy. These are found in the training that the artists undergo to learn the art as well as the methods they employ to convey the content to the audience. This results in high quality and very effective content delivery. The pedagogies employed in teru kūttu have been discussed in this paper. They have been listed as pedagogies that were already identified and pedagogies that have been hitherto overlooked; the latter is listed under section (b) in the two parts of learning that take place.
Conclusion
The pedagogies employed in the traditional performing art of teru kūttu are identified and listed.
References
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[2] Vishnu Purana 1-19-41
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Feature Image Credit: flicker.com
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