Abstract
Chandravati is one of the largest historical and medieval sites in Rajasthan, excavated from 2013 to 2016. The ruins of numerous temples, three fortifications and a huge collection of sculptures, which are actually architectural fragments of Jain and Hindu temples, shows that the city was really splendorous. A large number of sculpturals of Chandravati are associated with Jainism. Most of the sculptures are from the period between 10th to 13-14th Century which can be assumed as its prosperous phase. Usually in most archaeological excavations, animal bones are found in large quantities but in the case of Chandravati, the bones are very few. It is clearly visible that most of the residents of Chandravati belonged to the Jain community. This paper is an attempt to present the Jain evidences, obtained from Chandravati .
Introduction
Western India is well renowned for its temple architectural marvels. There are numerous temples and larger temple complexes, which have played a significant role in understanding the history and development of temple architecture and iconography. Two states of western India, Rajasthan and Gujarat have various temple architectural styles, which originated region wise. Western Rajasthani temple architectural style is known as Maru-Gurjara style and Osiyan (Jodhpur) and Nagda (Udaipur) are excellent examples of this (Seth 2016:205-215). Remains of temples at Chandravati are also one of them. Chandravati is one of the largest late historical and medieval sites in Rajasthan.
Chandravati is mentioned in many old Jain stories as a prosperous city in historic and medieval times and used to be a capital of the Parmar dynasty. Vimal Shah, a very well-known commander of king Bhimdev from Solanki dynasty in 11th century, took over Chandravati, which was ruled by Parmar king Dhundhukraj and developed the entire region as Jain pilgrimage centre (Jawalia 2016 : 5-11). This site was reported by Col. James Tod in his book Travels in western India (Tod 1971) and in 1824 Sir Charles Colville and Dr. Gustave le Bon in 1884 also visited the site (Kharakwal 2016: 1-41). Later on, thirty three temple groups were documented by the Dept. of Archaeology, M.S. University in 1978 (Mehta et al.1980). A few more circular brick structures may also be remains of ancient temples and can be added to this list.
This site was excavated jointly by Dept. of Archaeology, Sahitya Sansthan, J. R. N. Rajasthan Vidyapeeth University, Udaipur and State Department of Archaeology and Museum, Rajasthan in between 2013 to 2018. The ruins of numerous residential structures, fortifications and a very large collection of Brahmanical and Jain sculptures as other architectural members testify splendorous of the ancient city (Kharakwal 2016: 1-41) (Image no. 1, 2).
(Figure 1: Structural remains at Chandravati) (Figure 2: Evidence of Bastion of a fort at Chandravati)
The architectural style of temples is similar to the early medieval temples from western and central India. Most of them are built on high platforms (Jagati) prepared by bricks. There are a few similar examples of jagati such at Khajuraho (M.P.), Arthuna (Banswara). The architectural fragments of temples also indicate that most of the temples would be of ‘Shekhari’ styles of temples.
Icons housed in the museum at Chandravati indicate that people belonging to two prominent sects Hinduism and Jainism flourished in the township. No Buddhist sculpture or architectural member has been found. Among the Brahmanical icons, Shiva, Vishnu, Brahma, Surya are common ones (Seth et al.2016:50-64).
In this entire collection, sculptures or architectural fragments of temples belong to different time periods, and very few of them appear to be from sanctum sanctorum (Garbh griha) (Image no. 3 and 4). About 300 icons or other fragments are housed in the museum, of which a few are temporarily displayed at Chandravati site Museum. A few best pieces are also displayed in the Government Museum, Mount Abu (Sirohi). Most of the sculptures were made of marble, which is locally available in hills of Ambaji and adjoining areas.
(Figure 3 and 4: Temple Remains at Chandravati)
At the interior and exterior walls of temples, the ancient architects and carvers have tried to depict the entire universe. Gods, goddesses, Dewanganas, animals and scenes of ancient human society can be easily identified here. Here we are trying to give a brief description of the Jain sculptures from Chandravati.
Characteristics of temple sculptures
Most of the sculptures were depicted in the temple walls adorned with crowns, earrings, necklaces, rosaries of beads, yajnopavita sutra (sacred thread), armlets, wristlets, ornaments on waist and laps, and anklets. Besides, often weapon (s) related to the god or deities are also depicted. Divine sculptures are always being depicted with a vanmala (garland of possibly flower) from arms to legs (Image no. 5).
(Figure 5: After Sompura 1976)
Uttareeya or Cholak, an upper/outer garment, hanging from the shoulder, either across the chest or straight down, Antareeya, a cloth type which covered legs, usually worn by both male and females, below the waist and a waistband (of cloth) was used for tying it, Kayabandha (waistband) and Muktadam (A broad band of cloth worn round the thighs) are common costume of these sculptures. A sort of blouse was also carved on the torso of female sculptures with these apparels (Sompura 1976).
Chronology
As Chandravati has a good collection of sculpture, approx 300 sculptures have been counted here. We have tried to understand the development of the temples and sculpture chronologically. Unfortunately,several pages are missing from the chapter of the origin and decline of temples and iconography. Nevertheless, we could prepare a sequence of iconography from the 8th to 16th century. This is the first attempt to highlight the Jain artifacts discovered from the site.
Jaina teerthankara
It is held that Jain ideology originated around 5th Century BCE. Among its 24 Teerthankaras, Aadinatha also known as Rishabhdeva, is supposed to be the first one and Mahaveera, the last one. Chandravati was one of the biggest medieval settlements where Jainism flourished. It is also attested by finding a very large number of fragments of sculptures of Jain Teerthankaras from the site. Perhaps Jainism was a very popular religion at Chandravati. The Jain Teerthankara sculptures are found in standing and seated or padmasana posture. Their right leg is in front of the left leg and right hand over the left, both resting on the lap in the meditational posture. A few Jain images have a snake hood behind their head which helps to identify a few standing sculptures of Parshwanatha (Image no. 6, 7, 8, 9). It appears that all these sculptures may be older than 14th century).
(Figures 6, 7, 8, 9: Parshwanatha sculptures in standing posture)
(Figure 10: Four faceted sculpture)
Apart from these, there are few more fragments of sculptures of Jain Teerthankaras, in which one is a sculpture of two Teerthankaras, with joint backs, unfortunately the upper body is missing. It could have been a four faceted sculpture (Image no. 10), which is known as Choumukhi Pratima in other Jain temples. Other two sculptures are missing.
(Figure 11: Teerathankatra sculpture in padmasana posture)
It is a good Teerathankatra sculpture in padmasana posture. Most probably it was a mangal murti for placing in a niche on external walls of the temple (Image no. 11).
(Figure 12: Fragment of sculpture of Yugmandhar swami (A viharmana) with inscription)
An inscription on another reported Jain icon in padmasana pose reads the name of ‘Yugamandhar swami’. The carved decoration on the aasana is extremely beautiful. It surely belongs to the 11-12 century (Image no. 12).
(Figure 13: Unknown Teerthankara)
This is surely a key sculpture of Garbha-Griha of a Jain temple, where Jain Teerthankara is seated in padmasana posture and because there is no emblem (Lanchhana) at base of the sculpture so name of the Teerthankara cannot be identified (Image no. 13).
(Figure 14 and 15: Fragments of encircling fringe)
These standing figures of Jain Teerthankaras are surely fragments of the encircling fringe of the main idol of Jain Teerthankara. A vyali figure is visible at right side with a human, kneeling with joint hands below the vyali figure (Image no. 14). A fly whisk bearer can also be noticed at the right side of one sculpture (Image no. 15) .
(Figure 16: Fragment of Parshwanath sculpture)
It is possibly a fragment of Parshwanath sculpture in standing pose, which was actually part of the architecture of the temple. It has four Teerthankara figures in padmasana as parikar or encircling fringe (Image no. 16).
Narrative panel with a daily routine life scene
There are several narrative panels which were placed below the icons of gods-goddesses and Surasundari’s sculptures in temples. In such panels social scenes and varied activities of routine life are shown. These kinds of scenes are truly significant to understand the social, economic and even religious circumstances of earlier period society. In the collection of Chandravati, we have a few but important panels with such scenes.
(Figure 17: Queue for Jain Teerthankara’s worship)
Queue for Jain Teerthankara’s worship
This is a very important panel, which shows the religious activity of 12th-13th century’s society. In this scene a row of people are standing in a queue holding possibly water pots for Abhisheka (ablution) of Jain Teerthankara, who is depicted at the right edge of the panel in Padmasana posture (Image no. 17).
Fragments of Parikara (encircling fringe) of main deity
There are a number of fragments identified as Parikara of the main deity, which may have been placed in the Garbha-griha. These Parikars are common in the Hindu and Jain temples and are easily identifiable, that which one is connected to which god or goddess.
(Figure 18 and 19: Parikara of a Jain Teerthankara)
These are surely parikaras (encircling fringe) of a Jain teerthankara. A Teerthanka figure can be seen, seated in padmasana with several figures of maladhara, musicians and an elephant rider and vyali. Both are upper left fragments of parikara (Image no. 18, 19).
(Figure 20: Parikara of a Jain teerthankara ?)
This is a lower part of a parikara of possibly a Jain Teerthankara. Here, probably a Jain goddess is seated at the center in lalitasana pose, flanked by two elephants and two lions next to them (Image no. 20).
(Figure 21: Unidentified images of Teerthankaras in a seated pose)
These are the lower half of two sculptures of Teerthankaras in seated pose. Unfortunately because of the absence of lanchhana, these sculptures couldn’t be identified (Image no. 21).
Digpala
Eight Digpalas are guardians of eight directions and few sculptures of them are in the collection of Chandravati . These digpalas can be seen in Hindu and Jain temples uniformly.
Indra is the guardian of the eastern direction. He is standing here withholding vajra (Thunderstorm), ankusha, lotus and kamandal (pot with handle). His vehicle is an elephant, who is also visible near his feet (Image no. 22).
(Figure 22: Indra)
Agni is the guardian of the south eastern direction. He is depicted as holding sruva, a lotus, akshamala (rosary), kamandal with a smiling, bearded face. His vehicle ram is seated on the ground (Image no. 23).
(Figure 23: Agni)
Yama is depicted with a pen, a palm leaf or cloth for writing, a rooster and a khatwanga, known as the guardian of south direction. Sometimes he is depicted in a writing pose. In these sculptures, he is in writing pose (Image no. 24) and holding the pen and palm leaf in another one (Image no. 25). These are the similar attributes as what described by P.O. Sompura (Sompura 1976).
(Figure 24 and 25: Yama)
Varuna
Varuna is god of water and known as guardians of west direction. He is seen depicted holding a rope in his upper right arm and a lotus in upper left arm. His vehicle crocodile is visible near his feet (Image no. 26).
(Figure 26: Varun)
Kubera
Kubera is guardian of the North direction seated in lalitasana, flanked by two female attendants. He is known as the god of wealth. He is holding a nidhi (pot of wealth) on lower left arm and a mongoose on both upper arms (Image no. 27).
(Figure 27: Kubera)
Surasundari
There are 32 types of Sundaris that have been described in Sompuras texts ‘Deeparnava and Kshirarnava’, but there are several other types of Sursundaris which are found on the external and internal parts of temples. From the collection of Chandravati, a few known Sursundaries figures can be identified such as Karpoora Manjari, Kaamrupa, Chitrini, Chitra rupa (Chitra vallabha/Putra vallabha), Lilawati and so on (Varadpande 2006).
(Image 28: Chauri (Fly Whisk) Bearer)
Chauri (Fly Whisk) Bearer
It is possibly a 10th century sculpture of a female Chauri bearer holding a Chauri in her left hand, standing in tribhanga Mudra. Her hair is tied in Joodaa (coil of hair), Uttareeya or Cholak (a garment for upper body) can be seen with lots of beautiful jewellery. This fragment was also part of the outer wall of a temple (Image no. 28).
(Figure 29: Kaamrupa)
Kaamrupa
This can be a sculpture of a Surasundari, known as Kaamrupa. She is always depicted in an active dancing posture on one leg. Another leg is in the air. In this fragment, another Surasundari is also depicted on another facet (Image no. 29).
(Figure 30: Putra Vallabha/Chita Vallabha)
Putra Vallabha/Chita Vallabha
This particular Surasundari is always depicted with holding a child in her arms. It’s a very damaged sculpture so we cannot say about the period of this sculpture but it is not older than 13th -14th century. On this same fragment, a Vyali figure is also depicted with a warrior male. Vyali is described later in the same paper (Image no. 30).
(Figure 31: Karpoora Manjari)
Karpoora Manjari
This is one of the most erotic forms of Surasundari, where she just came after bath, her upper body is naked and she is pressing her breast. This is surely a 15th century sculpture, one of the latest sculptures in the collection (Image no. 31).
(Figure 32 : (Figure 33 : (Figure 34 :
Markatcesta Surasundari Hansavali) Surasundari playing
or Alaskanya with two balls)
Markatcesta Surasundari)
In this particular sculpture, Surasundari is trying to slap a snake that is gripped in her left hand. A male attendant is standing next to her (Image no. 32).
Hansavali
Hansavali Surasundari is known as anklet wearing Surasundari. In this sculpture she is possibly trying to wear an anklet in her left leg. This is surely a 12-13th century sculpture (Image no. 33).
Surasundari playing with balls
In this sculpture Surasundarai is depicted as playing with two balls. One she is holding in her hand above the head and another is below her feet. These kinds of Surasundaris are apart from the 32 Surasundaris, which are mentioned by Sompuras (Image no. 34).
Musician Surasundaris
There are few musicians Surasundaris also can be seen in temple architecture such as in these two sculptures Surasundaries are playing a drum and a flute (Image no. 35, 36).
(Figure 35 and 36: Musician Surasundaris)
Vyalas or Vyalis
Vyalas, which means a snake, it is a mythical hybrid creature, which are depicted, aside from the gods and goddess figures. Usually each Vyala figure is created with attributes of two different animals like lion with horns or lion body with elephant head etc. One or two male warriors, holding swords, are also depicted, where they are fighting with vyalas. Here we also have several Vyala or Vyalis scuptures(Image no. 37, 38, 39).
(Figure 37, 38 and 39: Vyalas or Vyalis)
Faunal remains
Usually, in most of the archaeological excavations, animal bones are found in large quantities but in the case of Chandravati, the bones are very less, which means the people of Chandravati were consuming cereals and vegetables because large quantities of charred grains were discovered from the excavation. It is clearly visible that most of the residents of Chandravati belonged to the Jain community.
Conclusion
This place and its collection plays a very important role in understanding the iconography and temple architecture in western India in Medieval times. As we have seen, these sculptures and temple architectural fragments give us very vital information about the religious and social condition of ancient Chandravati. People were also religious. We can visualize that if Chandravati has these numerous temples, then how many residences would be the worshipers of these gods.
The number of temples and sculptures demonstrate the splendor and prosperity of the town. The sculptures had been beautifully carved, which shows the expertise of ancient carvers. People of Chandravati were affluent in between 10th to 14th century CE and believers of Jainism and Hinduism. According to the sculptures and as per the faunal remains, it seems like most of the people were Jain.
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